CONTENTS

Preface xvii

GRAMMAR
CHAPTER 1
1. Alphabets 1a. The Cyrillic alphabet 1b. The Latin alphabet 1c. Spelling of proper names Pronunciation 2a. Pronunciation of vowels and consonants 2b. Accent Ekavian and ijekavian Conventions of citation used Nouns and gender 5a. Recognizing a nouns gender 5b. Gender in nouns of profession or nationality Personal pronouns Present tense of verbs 7a. Verb conjugation, introduction 7b. The verb biti Questions 8a. Questions with question words 8b. Yes-no questions Presentative statements (ovo je, etc.) Conjunctions Adjectives, introduction 11a. Possessive pronominal adjectives 11b. Demonstrative pronominal adjectives (ovaj, taj, onaj) Word order 12a. The role of clitics 12b. The XYZ model of clitic placement 1 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 5 5 5 6 7 8 8 8 9 9 10 10 11 11 12 12 13 13 14

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

CHAPTER 2
13. 14. Verb conjugation: the present tense Relationship between infinitive and present tense 14a. Potential accent shifts 14b. Type pisati 14c. Type vidjeti / videti 14d. Type piti 14e. Type kupovati 14f. The verb moi Verb forms of politeness Adjectives, continued 16a. Adjectives with single-syllable stems 16b. Fleeting -a- in adjectives; voicing assimilation 16c. Adjectives in -o Short and long forms of adjectives 17a. Indefinite vs definite 17b. Short vs. long and indefinite vs. definite Cases of nouns, introduction 16 17 17 17 18 18 18 18 18 19 19 19 19 20 20 21 21

15. 16.

17. 18.

CONTENTS

19. 20. 21.

22. 23.

24. 25. 26.

27. 28. 29.

The vocative case The nominative case The accusative case 21a. Endings of nouns and adjectives 21b. Fleeting -a- in nouns, and possible accent shifts 21c. Accusative of interrogative pronouns The accusative of direct object The accusative with prepositions 23a. Accentuation of prepositional phrases 23b. The preposition za 23c. The preposition u and days of the week 23d. The preposition na Object pronouns: clitic and full forms 24a. Clitic (short form) object pronouns 24b. Full (long form) object pronouns Negation 25a. Negation of present tense verbs 25b. Negation of other parts of speech The conjunction da 26a. Da used to introduce statements 26b. Da after verbs of desire 26c. Da + present as possible infinitive replacement Infinitives 27a. Infinitives after another verb 27b. Infinitive subjects Verbal aspect, introduction Word order 29a. Subordinate clauses 29b. Pronoun objects of infinitives

22 22 23 23 24 25 25 25 26 26 26 26 27 27 27 28 28 29 29 29 30 30 30 31 31 31 32 32 33

CHAPTER 3
30. 31. 32. Present tense, continued 30a. Type davati 30b. Type tei Feminine nouns ending in a consonant 31a. Nouns with more than one gender Nominative plural 32a. Endings of nouns and adjectives 32b. Consonant shifts before -i 32c. Fleeting -a- in masculine nouns 32d. Accent shifts in the plural 32e. Addition of -ov- / -ev32f. Soft consonants 32g. Plurals of nouns ending in -in 32h. Added syllable in neuter plurals Accusative plural Prepositions, continued 34a. The preposition kroz 34b. The preposition uz 34c. The preposition na, continued Adverbs Pronominal adjectives, continued 36a. Interrogative pronominal adjectives 36b. Descriptive pronominal adjectives 36c. Jedan and the idea one 34 34 34 34 35 35 36 36 37 38 38 39 39 40 40 40 41 41 41 41 42 42 43 44

33. 34.

35. 36.

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CONTENTS

37.

38. 39.

Speaking of and to people 37a. Case endings of personal names 37b. Vi: singular or plural agreement? 37c. The words for person and people The particle se and verbal usage, introduction Word order, continued

44 45 45 45 46 46

CHAPTER 4
40. Present tense, continued 40a. Type ii 40b. Type kazivati 40c. Type jesti 40d. The verbs sedeti and sjediti Possessive pronominal adjectives, continued 41a. Possessive adjectives referring to non-humans 41b. Derived possessive adjectives referring to humans Case forms, continued: the genitive case 42a. Endings of nouns and adjectives 42b. Changes in the stem of masculine nouns 42c. Short, long and longer adjective forms 42d. Genitive forms of pronoun objects 42e. Genitive forms of interrogative pronouns The genitive with prepositions 43a. Prepositions meaning from: iz, od, s(a) 43b. Prepositions meaning to, by: do, pored, kod 43c. The prepositions bez, izmeu and oko The genitive without prepositions 44a. The adnominal genitive 44b. The idea of possession 44c. Location indicators: evo, nema 44d. Identification of colors Accusative vs. genitive objects and partitive meaning Numbers: 2, 3, 4 46a. The counting form Masculine nouns ending in -o Subjectless sentences, introduction Adverbs and question words, continued Conjunctions, continued Word order: embedded questions 48 48 48 48 48 49 49 49 50 50 51 52 53 53 53 53 54 55 55 55 56 57 58 58 58 59 59 60 61 62 62

41. 42.

43.

44.

45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51.

CHAPTER 5
52. Present tense, continued 52a. Type drati 52b. Type doi 52c. The budem present of biti 52d. The verb htjeti / hteti 52e. Type pisati, continued 52f. Type uzeti Aspect, continued 53a. Aspect pairs related by suffixation 53b. Aspect pairs related by prefixation 53c. Usage of aspect in present tense forms Aspect pairs of motion verbs Motion verbs used with prepositions and adverbs 55a. Prepositions and the idea of motion 64 64 64 64 64 65 65 65 65 66 66 67 68 68

53.

54. 55.

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CONTENTS

56.

57.

58.

59.

60. 61.

62. 63. 64.

55b. Usage of motion verbs, with and without prepositions 55c. Question words concerning location and direction 55d. Motion verbs and tense meaning 55e. Infinitives following verbs of motion Negation, continued 56a. Negated verbs, negative pronouns and double negation 56b. Contrastive negation, review 56c. Negative conjunctions 56d. Negated questions, tag questions Genitive plural 57a. The genitive plural ending -a 57b. The genitive plural ending -i 57c. Nouns and adjectives in genitive plural Numbers: 5-10 and beyond 58a. Numbers up to10, review 58b. Numbers beyond 10 58c. Number phrases as subject Partitive genitive, continued 59a. Adverbs of measure and count vs. mass nouns 59b. Existentials: ima and nema 59c. Distributive po Verbs taking genitive objects Time expressions, continued 61a. Prepositions and adverbs of time and space 61b. Genitive adjective + noun expressions without preposition 61c. Time of the clock Non-negative pronouns Subjectless sentences, continued Clitic ordering within the XYZ model

69 69 70 70 70 70 71 72 72 73 73 74 75 75 75 76 76 77 77 78 79 79 79 80 80 81 81 82 82

CHAPTER 6
65. Present tense, continued 65a. Type pisati, continued 65b. Verbs which make no consonant shift 65c. Type slati Locative and dative cases 66a. Endings of nouns and adjectives 66b. Short, long, and longer adjective forms 66c. Dative-locative, interrogative pronouns 66d. Full form object pronouns, dative-locative 66e. Clitic form object pronouns: dative only 66f. Names of countries and languages The prepositions u and na with the locative case 67a. The prepositions u and na in the meaning location 67b. Specific nouns as u-words or na-words 67c. Case choice and ideas of motion vs. location 67d. Time expressions: the preposition u + months of the year Other prepositions with the locative case 68a. The prepositions o, po and pri Past tense, introduction Aspect, continued 70a. Aspect and the past tense 70b. Aspect and conjunctions Time expressions: the idea of duration Types of reflexive pronominal forms 84 84 84 84 85 85 86 86 87 87 87 88 88 89 90 91 91 92 92 93 93 94 94 95

66.

67.

68. 69. 70. 71. 72.

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CONTENTS

73.

74. 75. 76.

72a. The pronominal possessive svoj 72b. The object pronouns sebe and sebi 72c. The pronominal form sam The dative case 73a. The dative of indirect object 73b. Verbs which take dative objects 73c. Motion verbs, prepositions and the dative 73d. Verbs meaning like 73e. Possessive dative 73f. Dative of affect 73g. Subjectless sentences and the dative case 73h. The verb initi se Se-verbs, continued Nouns with plural form but singular meaning: vrata, kola Word order: object pronouns and the XYZ model

95 96 96 97 97 98 98 99 100 100 101 102 102 103 104

CHAPTER 7
77. 78. Present tense, continued 77a. Type razumjeti 77b. Type donijeti / doneti The imperative mood 78a. Endings of the imperative mood 78b. Use of singular and plural imperative forms 78c. The inclusive imperative and the form hajde 78d. The form neka 78e. Negative imperatives: aspect choice in the imperative mood The instrumental case 79a. Endings of nouns and adjectives 79b. The instrumental ending -u in feminine nouns 79c. The instrumental of interrogative pronouns 79d. Instrumental forms of pronoun objects Prepositions with the instrumental and other cases 80a. The preposition s(a) meaning with 80b. Prepositions referring to location The instrumental without prepositions 81a. The instrumental of means 81b. The instrumental in time expressions 81c. The instrumental of space 81d. Verbs which take instrumental objects Se-verbs, continued 82a. Inclinational se-verbs 82b. Desiderative se-verbs Aspect, continued 83a. Bi-aspectual verbs Verbs and adverbs of movement, continued 84a. Verbs of transport 84b. Prepositions and adverbs referring to motion and destination Word order 85a. Starting over with the XYZ model 85b. Word order and dependent infinitives 106 106 106 106 106 107 108 108 109 110 110 111 112 112 113 113 113 114 114 115 116 116 117 117 117 118 119 119 120 120 121 122 122

79.

80. 81.

82. 83. 84. 85.

CHAPTER 8
86. 87. Dative locative instrumental plural Se-verbs, continued 124 124

ix

CONTENTS

88. 89.

90. 91. 92. 93.

87a. Reciprocal usage of se 87b. Se-verbs that take objects The vocative case, continued Review of noun declension 89a. Masculine nouns 89b. Neuter nouns 89c. Feminine nouns 89d. Declension of personal names Irregular plurals Review of adjective declension 91a. Descriptive adjectives 91b. Pronominal adjectives Review of pronoun declension Review of prepositions 93a. Prepositions and case usage 93b. Negated objects of prepositions

124 125 126 128 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 138 139 140 141

CHAPTER 9
94. Present tense, continued 94a. Type prati 94b. Type krenuti 94c. Infinitives in -i 94d. Type stati 94e. Infinitives in -sti Future tense 95a. Forms of the future tense and their spelling 95b. Negation and questions 95c. The verbal ideas want and will 95d. Future tense of existentials and subjectless sentences 95e. Verbal aspect and future meaning Derivation of aspect partners 96a. Aspect partners differentiated by suffixation 96b. Aspect partners differentiated by prefixation Reflexive verbs Review of se-verbs Object clauses, introduction Time expressions, continued Vocabulary building: the stati / stajati group Word order and the future tense 142 142 142 142 142 143 143 143 145 146 147 147 149 149 150 150 152 153 154 154 155

95.

96. 97. 98. 99. 100. 101. 102.

CHAPTER 10
103. 104. Verb conjugation, review 103a. Verb types Past tense, continued 104a. Forms of the L-participle, continued 104b. Statements, negation and questions in the past tense 104c. Clitics and word order in the past tense 104d. Agreement in the past tense 104e. Past tense of existentials and subjectless sentences Subjectless sentences with accusative logical subject Verbal tense and verbal aspect 106a. Past and present, and scope of tense meanings 106b. Aspect and the past tense Vocabulary building: verbs of transport Verbal nouns, introduction 156 156 158 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 164 165 166 167

105. 106. 107. 108.

CONTENTS

109. 110. 111.

Ordinal numbers, introduction Body-parts 110a. Irregular forms of body-part names 110b. Body-ache constructions Word order in the past tense 111a. General word order rules 111b. Regional variation in past tense word order

168 168 168 169 170 170 171

CHAPTER 11
112. The system of consonant softenings 112a. Type A softening 112b. Type B softening 112c. Type C softening Comparison of adjectives and adverbs 113a. Comparison expressed by suffixes 113b. Comparison expressed by consonant softening 113c. Comparison expressed by a different word Usage of comparative and superlative forms 114a. to and sve with the comparative Collective nouns Verbal nouns, continued Participles 117a. Forms of the passive participle 117b. Active and passive participles used as adjectives Passive sentences, introduction The verbal idea need Verbs of body position Titles 121a. Proper names used in apposition 121b. Names of professions 173 173 174 174 176 176 177 179 179 181 181 183 185 185 187 187 189 190 191 191 192

113.

114. 115. 116. 117. 118. 119. 120. 121.

CHAPTER 12
122. 123. Past tense, continued 122a. Forms of the aorist and imperfect tenses 122b. Usage of the aorist and imperfect tenses Numbers, review 123a. Cardinal numbers 123b. Ordinal numbers 123c. Collective numbers and numerical nouns 123d. Fractions and approximative numbers Usage of numbers 124a. Agreement with cardinal numbers 124b. Ordinal numbers, and their use in dates 124c. Numbers referring to groups 124d. Distributive expressions 124e. Age Review of time expressions 125a. Locating an event in time 125b. Identifying duration of time 125c. Times of the day Adverbs and adjectives of time and place Verbs meaning should, ought Koji as interrogative and relative Verbal adverbs, introduction Exact future, introduction 195 195 196 197 197 198 199 200 201 201 203 204 205 205 206 206 207 208 209 210 212 213 214

124.

125.

126. 127. 128. 129. 130.

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CONTENTS

CHAPTER 13
131. 132. The conditional mood, introduction Conditional sentences 132a. Real conditions 132b. Potential conditionals 132c. Unreal conditions 132d. Conditional sentences, summary The conditional of politeness 133a. Toned-down statements 133b. Politeness formulas Other uses of the conditional 134a. The conditional of repetition 134b. The conditional of purpose Indirect discourse Relative conjunctions, continued 136a. Relative clauses with koji 136b. Other relative conjunctions Word order, continued 215 216 216 218 218 220 221 221 222 222 222 223 224 225 225 228 229

133. 134. 135. 136. 137.

CHAPTER 14
138. Verbal adverbs, continued 138a. Present verbal adverb 138b. Past verbal adverb 138c. Adjectives and adverbs formed from verbal adverbs Passive sentences, continued Impersonal sentences Subjectless sentences, review 141a. True subjectless sentences 141b. Subjectless sentences with dative logical subject 141c. Subjectless sentences with genitive logical subject Modal verbs Conjunctions, continued 143a. Coordinating conjunctions: and, but 143b. Compound conjunctions 143c. The conjunction kako 143d. The conjunction da and statements 143e. The conjunction da and potential actions 143f. The conjunction da as infinitive replacement, continued 143g. The conjunctions to and da 143h. Subject and object clauses, continued 143j. Doubled conjunctions expressing comparison 143k. Indefinite conjunctions and pronouns 230 230 231 232 233 236 237 238 239 240 240 243 243 244 247 247 249 251 252 253 256 257

139. 140. 141.

142. 143.

CHAPTER 15
144. 145. Expressions of future meaning 144a. The exact future, continued Aspect usage, continued 145a. Specific meanings of the imperfective aspect 145b. Specific meanings of the perfective aspect 145c. Aspect use in narrative contexts Prefixation and verbal meaning 146a. The prefixes of BCS 146b. Concrete and abstract meaning of verbal prefixes 146c. Prefixes and perfectivization 259 260 261 261 263 265 268 268 269 271

146.

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CONTENTS

147.

Aspect pairs, continued 147a. Simplex aspect pairs 147b. Prefixation and aspect pairs 147c. Derived imperfectives as aspect partners

273 273 275 277

CHAPTER 16
148. 149. 150. 151. 152. 153. Verbal nouns, continued Compound verbal tenses, review Simplex verbal tenses, review 150a. Forms of the aorist continued 150b. Forms of the imperfect, continued Tense use in narrative contexts Verbal conjugation, review Full verb paradigms 153a. Type 1 (gledati) 153b. Type 2 (nositi) 153c. Type 3 (videti / vidjeti) 153d. Type 4 (drati) 153e. Type 5 (pisati) 153f. Type 6 (piti) 153g. Type 7 (krenuti) 153h. Types 8a-8b (kupovati, kazivati) 153j. Type 9 (davati) 153k. Type 10 (brati) 153m. Type 11 (uzeti) 153n. Type 12 (umeti / umjeti) 153p. Type 13 (jesti) 153q. Type 14 (tresti) 153r. Types 15a-15b (tei, stii) 153s. Type 16 (doi) 153t. The verb hteti / htjeti 153u. The verb biti 282 283 284 284 285 286 290 291 292 292 293 293 294 294 294 295 296 296 297 297 298 298 299 300 300 301

CHAPTER 17
154. 155. 156. Cases of nouns, review The nominative and vocative cases 155a. The nominative case 155b. The vocative case The accusative case 156a. The accusative without a preposition 156b. The accusative with prepositions 156c. The accusative with prepositions in idiomatic usage The genitive case 157a. The genitive without a preposition 157b. The genitive with prepositions 157c. The genitive with prepositions in idiomatic usage The dative and locative cases 158a. The dative without a preposition 158b. The dative with prepositions 158c. The locative case The instrumental case 159a. The instrumental without a preposition 159b. The instrumental with prepositions Expressions with jedan drugi 302 302 302 303 304 304 306 310 311 312 314 318 319 319 321 321 324 324 326 328

157.

158.

159. 160.

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CONTENTS

CHAPTER 18
161. 162. 163. Word formation Word formation in verbs 162a. Verbs derived by suffixation 162b. Verbs derived by prefixation Word formation in nouns and adjectives 163a. Prefixation and compounding in nominal derivation 163b. Suffixation in nominal derivation 163c. Examples of suffixed nouns and adjectives 330 331 332 334 335 336 339 341

CHAPTER 19
164. 165. Clitic placement and BCS syntax: rhythmic constituents 164a. Obligatory rhythmic constituents 164b. Optional rhythmic constituents Accent in BCS 165a. The nature of the four accents 165b. Accent and prescriptivism in BCS 165c. Non-initial falling accents 165d. Variant accentuation Accent shifts in BCS 166a. Accent shifts in verbs 166b. Accent shifts in nouns and adjectives 166c. Accent shifts between words 350 350 352 353 354 355 356 357 357 359 361 363

166.

CHAPTER 20
167. The sound structure of BCS 167a. Palatalization 167b. Vowel shifts from ancient ablaut 167c. Vowel shifts akin to palatalization 167d. The shift of l to o 167e. Voicing assimilation 167f. Cluster simplification 167g. Fleeting vowels 167h. Inserted vowels 167j. Sound structure and spelling 365 365 367 368 368 369 371 373 374 376

SOCIOLINGUISTIC COMMENTARY
CHAPTER 21
168. 169. 170. Sociolinguistic commentary, introduction Writing systems 169a. The Glagolitic and Cyrillic alphabets 169b. The Latin alphabet Language standardization 170a. Vuk Karadi and language reform 170b. The Illyrian movement and language reform 170c. Vienna and beyond 170d. Novi Sad and beyond 379 380 380 381 382 382 383 384 385

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CHAPTER 22
171. Dialect differences 171a. tokavian, akavian, and kajkavian dialects 171b. Literary tokavian, akavian, and kajkavian 171c. Ekavian, ikavian, and (i)jekavian dialects 171d. Dialect divisions and language change East vs. west 172a. The eastern and western variants 172b. Gradations between east and west Distinguishing Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian 173a. Same vs. different 173b. Parameters of differentiation 173c. Vocabulary lists and differential dictionaries 387 388 389 391 393 395 395 398 400 400 401 402

172. 173.

CHAPTER 23
174. 175. 176. 177. Defining Bosnia The role of language in the Protectorate Bosnians in Yugoslavia 176a. The Bosnian idiom 176b. Bosnian Muslims as a national group The Bosnian / Bosniak language 404 405 406 407 407 408

CHAPTER 24
178. 179. 180. 181. 182. 183. Defining Croatia Language standardization in the pre-Yugoslav Croatian lands Croatia and the Yugoslav idea 180a. Language in Yugoslavia between 1929 and 1941 The Independent State of Croatia Croatia in Titoist Yugoslavia 182a. The Croatian Declaration and the Croatian Spring The Croatian language 410 410 411 412 412 413 414 415

CHAPTER 25
184. 185. 186. 187. Defining Serbia Language standardization in the pre-Yugoslav Serbian lands Serbia and Yugoslavia The Serbian language 187a. Alphabet and spelling 187b. Ekavian / ijekavian 187c. The Committee for the Standardization of Serbian Defining Montenegro 188a. Montenegro and Njego Montenegro in Yugoslavia 189a. A Montenegrin language? 416 416 417 418 419 419 420 420 421 422 422

188. 189.

CHAPTER 26
190. One language or more than one? 424

INDEXES
INDEX to Grammar INDEX to Sociolinguistic Commentary INDEX of words (BCS) INDEX of words (English) 427 439 443 462

xv