Quartz-Poor Mafic Rocks In general, the quartz-poor mafic rocks develop a weathering profile, also typical of many metamorphic

rocks, which is characterized by four zones: 1. An upper zone of residual soils that are predominantly clays with small amounts of organic matter (equivalent to the A and B horizons of pedological soils, see Section 7.8.1) 2. An intermediate zone of residual soil, predominantly clayey, but with decomposition less advanced than in the upper zone 3. A saprolite zone in which relict rock structure is evident and the materials are only partially decomposed, which grades to a weathered rock zone 4. The weathered rock zone where rock has only begun alteration Clay soils are the product of decomposition. The clay type is related strongly to the rainfall and drainage environment (Grim, 1962) as follows: Low rainfall or poor drainage; montmorillonite forms as magnesium remains. High rainfall and good drainage; kaolinite forms as magnesium is removed. Hot climates, primarily wet but with dry periods; humic acids are lacking, silica is dissolved and carried away, and iron and aluminum are concentrated near the surface (laterization). Cold, wet climates; potent humic acids remove aluminum and iron and concentrate silica near the surface (silcrete). A decomposition profile in basaltic rocks in a warm, moist climate is given in Figure 6.81. The area is characterized by rolling hills, mean annual temperature of 77oF (25oC), and annual rainfall of about 50 in. (1300 mm), most of which falls between September and April. These climatic conditions favor the maximum development of the porous clays (see Section 10.5.2), and produce some laterites. Laterite development is stronger to the north of the area where rainfall exceeds 60 in. (1500 mm) annually and temperatures are higher on an average than 80oF (26oC) (Section 7.7.2). Depth Residual soils Pedological horizons Saprolite Decomposed to fresh rock

Zone Humus (Upper) (Intermediat (Saprolite) (Weathered rock) Material Red or brown "porous clay" Red or yellow indurated clay (Mature residual or colluvial soil) Limonite concretions Sound rock Residual hard clay with relict structure Weathered rock Boulders, block or layers of altered rock. Quartz-Poor Mafic Rocks In general, the quartz-poor mafic rocks develop a weathering profile, also typical of many metamorphic rocks, which is characterized by four zones: 1. An upper zone of residual soils that are predominantly clays with small amounts of organic matter (equivalent to the A and B horizons of pedological soils, see Section 7.8.1) 2. An intermediate zone of residual soil, predominantly clayey, but with decomposition less advanced than in the upper zone 3. A saprolite zone in which relict rock structure is evident and the materials are only partially decomposed, which grades to a weathered rock zone 4. The weathered rock zone where rock has only begun alteration Clay soils are the product of decomposition. The clay type is related strongly to the rainfall and drainage environment (Grim, 1962) as follows: Low rainfall or poor drainage; montmorillonite forms as magnesium remains. High rainfall and good drainage; kaolinite forms as magnesium is removed.

 Hot climates, primarily wet but with dry periods; humic acids are lacking, silica is dissolved and carried away, and iron and aluminum are concentrated near the surface (laterization). Cold, wet climates; potent humic acids remove aluminum and iron and concentrate silica near the surface (silcrete). A decomposition profile in basaltic rocks in a warm, moist climate is given in Figure 6.81. The area is characterized by rolling hills, mean annual temperature of 77oF (25oC), and annual rainfall of about 50 in. (1300 mm), most of which falls between September and April. These climatic conditions favor the maximum development of the porous clays (see Section 10.5.2), and produce some laterites. Laterite development is stronger to the north of the area where rainfall exceeds 60 in. (1500 mm) annually and temperatures are higher on an average than 80oF (26oC) (Section 7.7.2). pyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group FIGURE 6.81 Decomposition profile in basaltic rocks in the Interland Plateau of southcentral Brazil. (Note: Saprolite is usually considered to be in the C horizon.) (From Vargas, M., Proceedings of the 2nd International Congress, International Association of Engineering Geology, Sao Paulo, Vol. 1, 1974. With permission.)

Metamorphic Rocks General Foliated metamorphic rocks such as gneiss and schist decompose with comparative ease because water enters and moves with relative freedom through the foliations. They tend to decompose to substantial depths, often greater than 100 ft (30 m) in moist climates. The typical decomposition profile in the metamorphic rocks of the coastal mountain range of Brazil is given in Figure 6.82, which includes ranges in depths and typical seismic refraction velocities for each zone. Seismic velocities are strong indicators of the profile development and depths. Slate, amphibolite, and massive metamorphic rocks are relatively resistant to chemical decomposition. Foliated Rocks: Typical Profile Development Stage 1: Fresh rock grades to moderately decomposed rock (Figure 6.83). Feldspars and micas have just begun to decompose and the clayey alteration of minerals can be seen witha microscope but the minerals are still firm.

Brown, reddish-brown, or yellow-brown discoloration with iron oxides occurs, especially along partings, and the density reduces to about 5 to 10% less than that of fresh rock. The material is tough and requires a hammer to break it, but gives a dull thud, rather than ringing, when struck. In dense rocks the layer is thin, but in the more porous types it can be many meters thick. Stage 2: Saprolite develops; the structure of the parent rock is preserved, but the mass is altered largely to clay stained with iron oxide. Leaching removes sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium; alumina, silica, and iron remain. In Figure 6.84a, the feldspar has formed white kaolinite and the biotite mica is only partially decomposed; the remaining minerals are primarily quartz grains. In Figure 6.84b, a sample from a shallower depth, the minerals remaining are kaolin, iron oxides, and quartz. Saprolites are generally grouped as soils (Vargas, 1974; Deere and Patton, 1971) because of their engineering properties. In the Piedmont region of the southeastern United States void ratios typically range from 0.7 to 1.3 and as high as 2.0, indicating the relative compressibility of the material (Sowers, 1954). Excavation by pick and shovel is relatively easy. Stage 3: Residual soil without relict structure is the final stage of decomposition (see Figure 7.3). Clay soils (kaolin) predominate; some parts are white, but most are stained with iron oxides and range from brightly colored red and purple to browns and yellows. In places the iron oxides are concentrated in nodules, fissure veins, or blanket veins. Desiccation and some cementation following leaching can cause the upper zone of 3 to 10 ft to form a stiff crust where located above the water table. The soils are usually classified as ML or CL-ML.

Engineering Properties A general description of the weathering profile in igneous and metamorphic rockstogether with some relative engineering properties is given in Table 6.14. Strength parameters of weathered igneous and metamorphic rocks are given in Table 3.35 Sedimentary Rocks (Excluding Marine Shales) General Sedimentary rocks are composed of stable minerals (quartz and clays) or soluble materials, with minor amounts of unstable materials present either as cementing agents or components of the mass. The depth of decomposition is relatively thin in comparison with foliated crystalline rocks, but increases with the amount of impurities in the mass.

Sandstones Composition minerals of sandstones are chiefly quartz grains cemented by silica, calcite, or iron oxide that are all stable except for calcite, which is soluble. Decomposition occurs in feldspars and other impurities to form a clayey sandy overburden, generally not more than a few meters thick. Shales: Freshwater Freshwater shales are composed of clay minerals and silt grains and decomposition is generally limited to impurities. Weathering is primarily mechanical, especially in temperate or cooler zones. The characteristic weathering product is small shale fragments in a clay matrix, usually only a few meters in thickness at the most. Triassic shales, considered to be freshwater deposits in shallow inland seas, predominantly contain inactive clays, and normally develop a thin reddish clayey overburden. Limestones and Other Carbonates Composed chiefly of calcite, the pure limestones are readily soluble and do not decompose to soil. It is the impurities that decompose, but normally there is no transition zone between the soil and the rock surface (see Figure 6.22), as is normal for other rock types, and the rock surface can be very irregular as shown in Figure 6.85 and Figure 6.86. The residual soils in warm, wet climates are typically clayey and colored red (terra rossa) to yellow to reddish brown; and in cooler, less moist climates, grayish brown. Marine Shales Significance Marine shales, particularly of the Tertiary, Cretaceous, and Permian periods, normally contain montmorillonite. They are the most troublesome shales from an engineering viewpoint because of their tendency to form unstable slopes and to heave in excavations (see Sections 9.2.6 and 10.6.3). The montmorillonite commonly was deposited during periods of volcanic activity (Figure 6.90a). Well-known troublesome formations include the Cucaracha shales (Tertiary) encountered during the construction of the Panama Canal, the Cretaceous shales covering large areas of the northwestern United States and adjoining Canada (Figure 6.87), the Permian shales of central and western Brazil, and the Cretaceous shales of Bahia, Brazil. Weathering Processes Marine shale formations have characteristically been prestressed by high overburden pressures, often as great as 100 tsf or more. When uplifted and subjected to erosion, stress release and the resulting strains cause intense fracturing in the mass. Water enters the frac- tures and the montmorillonite clay minerals expand to break the mass into numerous small fragments as

shown in Figure 6.88, thus making it susceptible to further weathering and reduction to a soil. Weathering, however, is primarily mechanical, although some chemical decomposition occurs. Landforms Landforms are characteristically gently rolling topography with shallow slopes, often of the order of 8 to 15o, with the shallow-depth materials subjected to sloughing and sliding movements as shown in Figure 6.89. Characteristics Profiles: Colors are predominantly gray to black. A typical profile from a core boring in the Pierre shale (Upper Cretaceous) shows a weathering profile consisting of four distinctzones (Figure 6.90). It is the amount of montmorillonite in a given zone that has the great- est effect on the intensity of disintegration because of nonuniform swelling. The Pierre shale is found in North and South Dakota (see Figure 6.87). Basic and Index Properties: Some natural water contents from the Pierre shale are given in Figure 6.90; in the unweathered zones it is about equal to the plastic limit. In the medium hard, fractured, weathered zone, typically LL 77 to 116%, PI 34 to 74%, activity is 2.8, and the content of particles smaller than 2 m is 50%. however, large variations in LL and PI can be found. Strength: Disintegration occurs rapidly when fresh rock is exposed to moisture in the air during excavation and is accompanied by a rapid reduction in strength. Typical properties of some marine and clay shales are given in Table 3.38. Residual shear strengths r, as determined by direct shear tests, vs. the liquid limit for various marine shales from the northwestern United States are given in Figure 6.91. Interbedded Shales Marine Shales Sandstone interbeds retard deep weathering that proceeds along exposed shale surfaces. In the northwestern United States, Banks (1972) observed that slopes capped with or underlain by resistant sandstone strata had inclinations ranging from 20 to 45o whereas slopes containing only marine shales ranged from 8 to 15o. Dipping interbeds of sandstone and shale have caused severe problems in a development in Menlo Park, California (Meehan et al., 1975). The shales have decomposed to a black, expansive clay. The differential movement of foundations and pavements founded over alter- nating and dipping beds of sandstone and shale have resulted as discussed in Section 10.6.3. Sandstones Containing Thin Shale Beds

Relatively steep overall stable slopes are characteristic of sandstones interbedded with thin shale layers, but such slopes are subject to falling blocks of sandstone when the shales contain expansive materials. Thin seams of montmorillonite in the shale expand, fracturing and wedging blocks of sandstone loose. Differential weathering of the shale causes it to recede beneath the sandstone as shown in Figure 6.48, resulting in a loss of support and blocks falling to the roadway.

Description of a Weathering Profile in Igneous and Metamorphic Rocksa Zone (class) Residual soil A Horizon B Horizon C Horizon (saprolite) Weathered rock Transition Partly weathered rock Unweathered rock

Description Top soil, roots. Zone of leaching and eluviation may be porous Usually clay-enriched with accumulations of Fe, Al, and Si. Hence may be cemented, no relict structure present Relict rock structure retained. Silty grading to sandy material. Less than 10% corestones. Often micaceous Highly variable, soil to rocklike. Commonly c-f sand, 10 to 95% corestones. Spheroidal weathering common Soft to hard rock joints stained to altered. Some alteration of feldspars and micas No iron stains to trace along joints. No weathering of feldspars and micas Core recovery

Relative Permeability Medium to high Low Medium High (water losses common Medium to high Low to medium Relative Strength Low to medium Commonly low, high if cemented Low to medium (relict structure very significant Medium to low where weak or relict structures present Medium to high for intact specimens Very high for intact specimens Material Red, brown, or yellow saturated clay or sand (mature residual soil) Red, brown or yellow stiff to hard clay or clayed sand, often with quartz veins and mica. Eventually with relict structure Claysand mixtures, often highly micaceous: rock fabric preserved. Red, brown, white, grey, eventually containing boulders or rock strata moderately decomposed Boulders or layers of moderately decomposed rock with soil zones or layer