TENSORS

TENSORS
yConvention
yConvention 2
yKronecker delta
yChange of basis
yChange of basis 2
yCartesian tensors
yExample 1
yExample 1 contd
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 1 / 59
Summation Convention
TENSORS
yConvention
yConvention 2
yKronecker delta
yChange of basis
yChange of basis 2
yCartesian tensors
yExample 1
yExample 1 contd
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 2 / 59
Any lower-case alphabetic subscript that appears exactly twice in
any term of an expression is to be summed over all values that a
subscript in that position can take (unless stated). Examples are
a
i
.
i
stands for a
1
.
1
a
2
.
2
a
3
.
3
;
a
ij
b
jk
stands for a
i1
b
1k
a
i2
b
2k
a
i3
b
3k
;
a
ij
b
jk
c
k
stands for
P
3
jD1
P
3
kD1
a
ij
b
jk
c
k
;
@v
i
@x
i
stands for
@v
1
@x
1

@v
2
@x
2

@v
3
@x
3
;
@
2

@x
i
@x
i
stands for
@
2

@x
2
1

@
2

@x
2
2

@
2

@x
2
3
.
Summation Convention 2
TENSORS
yConvention
yConvention 2
yKronecker delta
yChange of basis
yChange of basis 2
yCartesian tensors
yExample 1
yExample 1 contd
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 3 / 59
Dummy Subscripts: subscripts that are summed over.
The others are called free subscripts.
When introducing a dummy subscript into an expression, care
should be taken NOT to use one that is already present.
E.g.: a
ij
b
jk
c
kl
cannot and must not be replaced by a
ij
b
jj
c
jl
or
a
il
b
lk
c
kl
, but could be replaced by a
im
b
mk
c
kl
or by a
im
b
mn
c
nl
.
Kronecker delta
TENSORS
yConvention
yConvention 2
yKronecker delta
yChange of basis
yChange of basis 2
yCartesian tensors
yExample 1
yExample 1 contd
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 4 / 59
Kronecker delta
ij
is dened by

ij
=

1 if i = ,
0 otherwise.
The main use of
ij
is to replace one subscript by another in
certain expressions. For example,
a
ij

jk
= a
ij

kj
= a
ik
(1)
In matrix language, it can be written as AI=A, where A is the matrix
with elements a
ij
and I is the unit matrix.
Eg:
b
i

ij
= b
j
a
ij
b
jk

ki
= a
ij
b
ji
Change of basis
TENSORS
yConvention
yConvention 2
yKronecker delta
yChange of basis
yChange of basis 2
yCartesian tensors
yExample 1
yExample 1 contd
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 5 / 59
A vector x can be written as
x = .
1
e
1
.
2
e
2
.
3
e
3
= .
i
e
i
.
where .
1
, .
2
, .
3
are its components and e
1
, e
2
and e
3
are the set
of basis vectors. Introducing a new basis set e
0
1
, e
0
2
and e
0
3
, where
e
0
j
= S
ij
e
i
. (2)
and S
ij
is the i th component of the vector e
0
j
wrt the unprimed
basis, we rewrite x in terms of the new basis as
x = .
0
1
e
0
1
.
0
2
e
0
2
.
0
3
e
0
3
= .
0
i
e
0
i
Thus, the components .
0
i
and .
i
in the two bases are related by
.
0
i
= (S
1
)
ij
.
j
.
Change of basis 2
TENSORS
yConvention
yConvention 2
yKronecker delta
yChange of basis
yChange of basis 2
yCartesian tensors
yExample 1
yExample 1 contd
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 6 / 59
If the transformation is a rotation of the coordinate axes, the
transformation matrix S is orthogonal. Then,
.
0
i
= (S
T
)
ij
.
j
= S
ji
.
j
. (3)
For orthogonal transformation, the length of vector is kept fixed
Cartesian tensors
TENSORS
yConvention
yConvention 2
yKronecker delta
yChange of basis
yChange of basis 2
yCartesian tensors
yExample 1
yExample 1 contd
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 7 / 59
Dene transformation matrix L as the inverse of matrix S. Thus,
from Eq. 3, the components of a position vector x, in the old and
new bases respectively, are related by
.
0
i
= 1
ij
.
j
. (4)
For orthogonal transformations, L is an orthogonal matrix so that
L
1
= L
T
. Therefore, the inverse transformation is given by
.
i
= 1
ji
.
0
j
. (5)
Since L is orthogonal, we have
1
ik
1
jk
=
ij
and 1
ki
1
kj
=
ij
(6)
Further, we have
1
ij
= e
0
i
e
j
.
Example 1
TENSORS
yConvention
yConvention 2
yKronecker delta
yChange of basis
yChange of basis 2
yCartesian tensors
yExample 1
yExample 1 contd
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 8 / 59
Example
Find the transformation matrix L corresponding to a rotation of the
coordinate axes through an angle 0 about the e
3
-axis (or .
3
-axis)
FIG. 1: Rotation of Cartesian axes by an angle 0 about the .
3
-axis. The
three angles marked 0 and the parallels (broken lines) to the primed axes
show how the rst two of Eqs. 7 are constructed.
Example 1 contd
TENSORS
yConvention
yConvention 2
yKronecker delta
yChange of basis
yChange of basis 2
yCartesian tensors
yExample 1
yExample 1 contd
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 9 / 59
Solution
From FIG. 1, we have
.
0
1
= .
1
cos 0 .
2
sin 0
.
0
2
= .
1
sin 0 .
2
cos 0 (7)
.
0
3
= .
3
.
) 1 =
0
@
cos 0 sin 0 0
sin 0 cos 0 0
0 0 1
1
A
.
The inverse equations are
.
1
= .
0
1
cos 0 .
0
2
sin 0
.
2
= .
0
1
sin 0 .
0
2
cos 0 (8)
.
3
= .
0
3
.
First- and zero-order Cartesian tensors
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
y1
st
& 0
th
order CT
yExample 2
yExample 2 contd
yExample 2 contd
yExample 3
yScalar Tensor
yExample 4
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 10 / 59
First- and zero-order Cartesian tensors
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
y1
st
& 0
th
order CT
yExample 2
yExample 2 contd
yExample 2 contd
yExample 3
yScalar Tensor
yExample 4
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 11 / 59
Vector or rst-order Cartesian tensor satises the following
transformation law:

0
i
= 1
ij

j
. (9)
By denition, the position coordinates are themselves the
components of such a tensor. Moreover, since the transformation
(9) is orthogonal, the components of a rst-order Cartesian tensor
also obey the inverse relation

i
= 1
ji

0
j
. (10)
Example
Which of the following pairs of quantities (
1
.
2
) are the
components of a rst-order Cartesian tensor in two dimensions?:
(i) (.
2
. .
1
), (ii) (.
2
. .
1
), (iii) (.
2
1
. .
2
2
).
Example 2
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
y1
st
& 0
th
order CT
yExample 2
yExample 2 contd
yExample 2 contd
yExample 3
yScalar Tensor
yExample 4
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 12 / 59
Solution
We denote cos 0 by c and sin 0 by s.
(i) Here
1
= .
2
and
2
= .
1
(referred to the old axes) and

0
1
= .
0
2
and
0
2
= .
0
1
(new coordinates). Then

0
1
= .
0
2
= s.
1
c.
2
(11)

0
2
= .
0
1
= c.
1
s.
2
.
From Eq. 9, we have

0
1
= 1
11

1
1
12

2
= c.
2
s(.
1
) (12)

0
2
= 1
21

1
1
22

2
= s(.
2
) c(.
1
).
The expressions in Eqs. 11 and 12 for
0
1
and
0
2
are respectively
the same whatever the values for 0 and thus the pair (.
2
. .
1
) are
components of a rst-order Cartesian tensor.
Example 2 contd
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
y1
st
& 0
th
order CT
yExample 2
yExample 2 contd
yExample 2 contd
yExample 3
yScalar Tensor
yExample 4
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 13 / 59
(ii) Here
1
= .
2
and
2
= .
1
. Following the same procedure,

0
1
= .
0
2
= s.
1
c.
2

0
2
= .
0
1
= c.
1
s.
2
.
From Eq. 9, we must have

0
1
= c
1
s
2
= c.
2
s.
1

0
2
= (s)
1
c
2
= s.
2
c.
1
.
These two set of expressions do not agree and thus the pair
(.
2
. .
1
) do not form the components of a rst-order Cartesian
tensor.
Example 2 contd
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
y1
st
& 0
th
order CT
yExample 2
yExample 2 contd
yExample 2 contd
yExample 3
yScalar Tensor
yExample 4
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 14 / 59
(iii)
1
= .
2
1
and
2
= .
2
2
. Considering only the rst component

0
1
, we have

0
1
= .
02
1
= c
2
.
2
1
2cs.
1
.
2
s
2
.
2
2
.
whilst (9) requires that

0
1
= c
1
s
2
= c.
2
1
s.
2
2
.
which is quite different.
Example 3
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
y1
st
& 0
th
order CT
yExample 2
yExample 2 contd
yExample 2 contd
yExample 3
yScalar Tensor
yExample 4
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 15 / 59
We now consider quantities that are unchanged by a rotation of
axes. They are called scalars (tensors of zero order). They contain
only one element.
Example
By considering the components of the vectors u and v with respect
to two Cartesian systems (related by a rotation), show that the
scalar product u v is invariant under rotation.
Solution
In the rotated (primed) system we have
u
0
i

0
i
= 1
ij
u
j
1
ik

k
= 1
ij
1
ik
u
j

k
=
jk
u
j

k
= u
j

j
.
where we have used the orthogonality relation (6). Thus, the scalar
product is invariant under rotations.
First-order tensor from scalar
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
y1
st
& 0
th
order CT
yExample 2
yExample 2 contd
yExample 2 contd
yExample 3
yScalar Tensor
yExample 4
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 16 / 59
A rst-order tensor can be obtained from a scalar.
E.g. The electric eld E = V has components
1
i
=
d
d.
i
. (13)
Under a rotation of the coordinate axes, we have
1
0
i
=

d
d.
i

0
=
d
0
d.
0
i
=
d.
j
d.
0
i
d
d.
j
= 1
ij
1
j
. (14)
where Eq. 5 has been used to evaluate d.
j
,d.
0
i
. Thus, E is a
(rst-order) tensor.
Example 4
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
y1
st
& 0
th
order CT
yExample 2
yExample 2 contd
yExample 2 contd
yExample 3
yScalar Tensor
yExample 4
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 17 / 59
Example
If
i
are the components of a rst-order tensor, show that
V v = d
i
,d.
i
is a zero-order tensor.
Solution
In the rotated coordinate system V v is given by

d
i
d.
i

0
=
d
0
i
d.
0
i
=
d.
j
d.
0
i
d
d.
j
(1
ik

k
) = 1
ij
1
ik
d
k
d.
j
.
since the elements 1
ij
are not functions of positions. Thus,
d
0
i
d.
0
i
= 1
ij
1
ik
d
k
d.
j
=
jk
d
k
d.
j
=
d
j
d.
j
.
Hence d
i
,d.
i
is invariant under rotation of the axes, and is thus a
zero-order tensor.
Second- and higher-order Cartesian tensors
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
yHigher-order CT
yHigher-order CT 2
yHigher-order CT 3
yHigher-order CT 4
yExample 5
yExample 5 contd
yAlgebra
yAlgebra 2
yExample 6
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 18 / 59
Second- and higher-order Cartesian tensors
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
yHigher-order CT
yHigher-order CT 2
yHigher-order CT 3
yHigher-order CT 4
yExample 5
yExample 5 contd
yAlgebra
yAlgebra 2
yExample 6
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 19 / 59
Dene a second-order Cartesian tensor T
ij
as follows:
T
0
ij
= 1
ik
1
jl
T
kl
(15)
and
T
ij
= 1
ki
1
lj
T
0
kl
(16)
Similarly, T
ij:::k
is a tensor if T
0
ij:::k
are given by
T
0
ij:::k
= 1
ip
1
jq
. . . 1
kr
T
pq:::r
(17)
and
T
ij:::k
= 1
pi
1
qj
. . . 1
rk
T
0
pq:::r
(18)
In three dimensions, an Nth-order Cartesian tensor has 3
N
components.
Second- and higher-order Cartesian tensors 2
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
yHigher-order CT
yHigher-order CT 2
yHigher-order CT 3
yHigher-order CT 4
yExample 5
yExample 5 contd
yAlgebra
yAlgebra 2
yExample 6
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 20 / 59
Examples of second-order tensors:
(i) The outer product of two vectors. Let u
i
and
i
, i = 1. 2. 3 be
the components of two vectors u and v. Consider T
ij
dened by
T
ij
= u
i

j
. (19)
The set T
ij
are called the components of the outer product of u
and v. Under rotations, we have
T
0
ij
= u
0
i

0
j
= 1
ik
u
k
1
jl

l
= 1
ik
1
jl
u
k

l
= 1
ik
1
jl
T
kl
. (20)
Thus, T is a second-order tensor.
Second- and higher-order Cartesian tensors 3
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
yHigher-order CT
yHigher-order CT 2
yHigher-order CT 3
yHigher-order CT 4
yExample 5
yExample 5 contd
yAlgebra
yAlgebra 2
yExample 6
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 21 / 59
The outer product of two vectors is often denoted as
T = u v. (21)
Since u = u
i
e
i
and v =
i
e
i
, we may write the tensor T as
T = u
i
e
i

j
e
j
= u
i

j
e
i
e
j
= T
ij
e
i
e
j
. (22)
Since the quantities T
0
ij
are the components of the same tensor T ,
but referred to a different coordinate system, we may write
T = T
ij
e
i
e
j
= T
0
ij
e
0
i
e
0
j
.
Second- and higher-order Cartesian tensors 4
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
yHigher-order CT
yHigher-order CT 2
yHigher-order CT 3
yHigher-order CT 4
yExample 5
yExample 5 contd
yAlgebra
yAlgebra 2
yExample 6
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 22 / 59
(ii) The gradient of a vector. Suppose
i
represents the
components of a vector. Now, consider its derivatives:
T
ij
=
d
i
d.
j
.
These nine quantities form the components of a second-order
tensor since
T
0
ij
=
d
0
i
d.
0
j
=
d(1
ik

k
)
d.
l
d.
l
d.
0
j
= 1
ik
d
k
d.
l
1
jl
= 1
ik
1
jl
T
kl
.
In coordinate-free language, the tensor T may be written as
T = Vv.
For Cartesian tensor, a differentiation will give another tensor.
Example 5
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
yHigher-order CT
yHigher-order CT 2
yHigher-order CT 3
yHigher-order CT 4
yExample 5
yExample 5 contd
yAlgebra
yAlgebra 2
yExample 6
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 23 / 59
Example
Show that the T
ij
given by
T = T
ij
| =

.
2
2
.
1
.
2
.
1
.
2
.
2
1

. (23)
are the components of a second-order tensor.
Solution
Consider a rotation about the e
3
-axis. Using Eq. 7, we have
T
0
11
= .
02
2
= s
2
.
2
1
2sc.
1
.
2
c
2
.
2
2
.
T
0
12
= .
0
1
.
0
2
= sc.
2
1
(s
2
c
2
).
1
.
2
sc.
2
2
.
T
0
21
= .
0
1
.
0
2
= sc.
2
1
(s
2
c
2
).
1
.
2
sc.
2
2
.
T
0
22
= .
02
1
= c
2
.
2
1
2sc.
1
.
2
s
2
.
2
2
.
Example 5 contd
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
yHigher-order CT
yHigher-order CT 2
yHigher-order CT 3
yHigher-order CT 4
yExample 5
yExample 5 contd
yAlgebra
yAlgebra 2
yExample 6
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 24 / 59
Evaluating the right-hand side of Eq. 15, we have
T
0
11
= cc.
2
2
cs(.
1
.
2
)
sc(.
1
.
2
) ss.
2
1
.
T
0
12
= c(s).
2
2
cc(.
1
.
2
) s(s)(.
1
.
2
)
sc.
2
1
.
T
0
21
= (s)c.
2
2
(s)s(.
1
.
2
) cc(.
1
.
2
)
cs.
2
1
.
T
0
22
= (s)(s).
2
2
(s)c(.
1
.
2
)
c(s)(.
1
.
2
) cc.
2
1
.
Thus, T
ij
are the components of a second-order tensor.
Algebra of Tensors
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
yHigher-order CT
yHigher-order CT 2
yHigher-order CT 3
yHigher-order CT 4
yExample 5
yExample 5 contd
yAlgebra
yAlgebra 2
yExample 6
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 25 / 59
If V
ij:::k
and W
ij:::k
are tensors of the same order, then their sum
and difference, S
ij:::k
and D
ij:::k
respectively, are given by
S
ij:::k
= V
ij:::k
W
ij:::k
D
ij:::k
= V
ij:::k
W
ij:::k
.
S
ij:::k
and D
ij:::k
are also tensors.
If T
ij:::k
is a tensor, interchanging the order of (a pair of) indices,
e.g. T
ji:::k
, also produces a tensor.
If T
ij:::k
= T
ji:::k
, then T
ij:::k
is said to be symmetric with respect
to its rst two indices.
If T
ij:::k
= T
ji:::k
, then T
ij:::k
is antisymmetric.
The outer product of an Nth-order tensor with an Mth-order tensor
will produce an (M N)th-order tensor.
Algebra of Tensors 2
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
yHigher-order CT
yHigher-order CT 2
yHigher-order CT 3
yHigher-order CT 4
yExample 5
yExample 5 contd
yAlgebra
yAlgebra 2
yExample 6
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 26 / 59
An arbitrary tensor can always be written as the sum of a
symmetric tensor S
ij:::k
and an antisymmetric tensor
ij:::k
:
T
ij:::k
=
1
2
(T
ij:::k
T
ji:::k
)
1
2
(T
ij:::k
T
ji:::k
)
= S
ij:::k

ij:::k
.
Example 6
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
yHigher-order CT
yHigher-order CT 2
yHigher-order CT 3
yHigher-order CT 4
yExample 5
yExample 5 contd
yAlgebra
yAlgebra 2
yExample 6
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 27 / 59
Example
Show that the process of contraction of a tensor produces another tensor,
but with an order reduced by 2.
Solution
Let T
ij:::l:::m:::k
be the components of an Nth-order tensor, then
T
0
ij:::l:::m:::k
= 1
ip
1
jq
. . . 1
lr
. . . 1
ms
. . . 1
kn

N factors
T
pq:::r:::s:::n
If we make two subscripts l and m equal, we have
T
0
ij:::l:::l:::k
= 1
ip
1
jq
. . . 1
lr
. . . 1
ls
. . . 1
kn
T
pq:::r:::s:::n
= 1
ip
1
jq
. . .
rs
. . . 1
kn
T
pq:::r:::s:::n
= 1
ip
1
jq
. . . 1
kn

.N2/ factors
T
pq:::r:::r:::n
Thus T
ij:::l:::l:::k
is a tensor of order (N 2).
Quotient Law
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law
yQuotient Law
yQuotient Law 2
yQuotient Law 3

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 28 / 59
Quotient Law
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law
yQuotient Law
yQuotient Law 2
yQuotient Law 3

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 29 / 59
The law states that if B and C are tensors and also that

pq:::k:::m
T
ij:::k:::n
= C
pq:::mij:::n
(24)
holds in all rotated coordinate frames where A, B, and C are of
Mth, Nth and (M N 2)th order, then
pq:::k:::m
is also a
tensor.
Quotient Law 2
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law
yQuotient Law
yQuotient Law 2
yQuotient Law 3

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 30 / 59
Proof: (for the case M = N = 2)
Given

pk
T
ik
= C
pi
(25)
where T
ik
and C
pi
are arbitrary second-order tensors. Under a
rotation of coordinates, we have

0
pk
T
0
ik
= C
0
pi
= 1
pq
1
ij
C
qj
= 1
pq
1
ij

ql
T
jl
= 1
pq
1
ij

ql
1
mj
1
nl
T
0
mn
= 1
pq
1
nl

ql
T
0
i n
(since 1
ij
1
mj
=
im
)
As k and n are dummy subscripts, we may write
(
0
pk
1
pq
1
kl

ql
)T
0
ik
= 0. (26)
Quotient Law 3
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law
yQuotient Law
yQuotient Law 2
yQuotient Law 3

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 31 / 59
Since T
0
ik
is an arbitrary tensor, we must have

0
pk
= 1
pq
1
kl

ql
.
so that
pk
is a second-order tensor.

The law can be used to test whether a given set of quantities is a

tensor. For example, the outer product .
i
.
j
is a second-order
tensor. Contracting this with the T
ij
given in Eq. 23, we have
T
ij
.
i
.
j
= .
2
2
.
2
1
.
1
.
2
.
1
.
2
.
1
.
2
.
2
.
1
.
2
1
.
2
2
= 0.
Thus by the quotient law, T
ij
must be a tensor.
Tensors
i
and c
ik
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
y
ij
and
ijk
yExample 7
y
ij
and
ijk
2
y
ij
and
ijk
3
yExample 8
yExample 8 contd
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 32 / 59
Tensors
i
and c
ik
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
y
ij
and
ijk
yExample 7
y
ij
and
ijk
2
y
ij
and
ijk
3
yExample 8
yExample 8 contd
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 33 / 59
The Levi-Civita symbol c
ijk
is dened as
c
ijk
=
8
<
:
1 i , , k: even permutation of 1, 2, 3
1 i , , k: odd permutation of 1, 2, 3
0 otherwise.
Note that c
ijk
is totally antisymmetric.
ij
is a second-order tensor
because

0
kl
= 1
ki
1
lj

ij
= 1
ki
1
li
=
kl
.
Levi-Civita symbol can be used to write an expression for the
determinant of a 3 3 matrix A:
[[c
lmn
=
li

mj

nk
c
ijk
. (27)
Using Eq. 27, it can be shown that c
ijk
is a third-order tensor since
c
lmn
= [1[1
li
1
mj
1
nk
c
ijk
= c
0
lmn
.
Example 7
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
y
ij
and
ijk
yExample 7
y
ij
and
ijk
2
y
ij
and
ijk
3
yExample 8
yExample 8 contd
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 34 / 59
Example
Write the following as contracted Cartesian tensors: (i) a b; (ii) V
2
; (iii)
V v; (iv) V(V v); (v) V (V v); (vi) (a b) c.
Solution
(a b)
i
= c
ijk
a
j
b
k
.
a b = a
i
b
i
.
V
2
=
d
2

d.
i
d.
i
.
(V v)
i
= c
ijk
d
k
d.
j
.
V(V v)
i
=
d
d.
i

d
j
d.
j

.
V (V v)
i
= c
ijk
d
d.
j

c
klm
d
m
d.
l

= c
ijk
c
klm
d
2

m
d.
j
d.
l
.
(a b) c = c
i kl
c
i
a
k
b
l
.
Tensors
i
and c
ik
2
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
y
ij
and
ijk
yExample 7
y
ij
and
ijk
2
y
ij
and
ijk
3
yExample 8
yExample 8 contd
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 35 / 59
An important relation between the c- and - tensors is expressed
by the identity
c
ijk
c
klm
=
il

jm

im

jl
(28)
Establishing the identity:
Consider the various possibilities that arise. The RHS of Eq. 28
has the values
1 if i = 1 and = m = i , (29)
1 i = m and = l = i , (30)
0 otherwise. (31)
In each product on the LHS k has the same value in both factors
and for a non-zero contribution none of i , l, , m can have the
same value as k. Thus, the only non-zero possibilities are i = 1
and = m or vice versa, but not all four subscripts equal.
Tensors
i
and c
ik
3
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
y
ij
and
ijk
yExample 7
y
ij
and
ijk
2
y
ij
and
ijk
3
yExample 8
yExample 8 contd
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 36 / 59
This reproduces Eq. 31 for the LHS of Eq. 28 and also the
conditions Eqs. 29 and 30. The values in Eq. 29 and 30 are also
reproduced in the LHS of Eq. 28 since
if i = l and = m, c
ijk
= c
lmk
= c
klm
and, whether c
ijk
is
1 or 1, the product of the two factors is 1; and
if i = m and = l, c
ijk
= c
mlk
= c
klm
, and thus the
product c
ijk
c
klm
(no summation) has the value 1.
Example 8
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
y
ij
and
ijk
yExample 7
y
ij
and
ijk
2
y
ij
and
ijk
3
yExample 8
yExample 8 contd
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 37 / 59
Example
Obtain an alternative expression for V (V v).
Solution
We have
V (V v)|
i
= c
ijk
c
klm
d
2

m
d.
j
d.
l
= (
il

jm

im

jl
)
d
2

m
d.
j
d.
l
=
d
d.
i

d
j
d.
j

d
2

i
d.
j
d.
j
= V(V v)|
i
V
2

i
.
where in the second line we have used the identity (28)
Example 8 contd
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
y
ij
and
ijk
yExample 7
y
ij
and
ijk
2
y
ij
and
ijk
3
yExample 8
yExample 8 contd
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 38 / 59
In general, we have
c
ijk
c
pqr
=

ip

iq

ir

jp

jq

jr

kp

kq

kr

. (32)
For example, we have, from Eq. 32,
c
ijk
c
ilm
=
jl

km

jm

kl
(33)
Contracting Eq. 33 by setting = l, we obtain
c
ijk
c
ijm
= 3
km

km
= 2
km
since
kk
= 3. By contracting once more, setting k = m, we
further nd that
c
ijk
c
ijk
= 6. (34)
Isotropic Tensors
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
yIsotropic Tensors
yIsotropic Tensors 2
yIsotropic Tensors 3
yExample 9
yExample 9 contd
yExample 9 contd
Pseudotensors
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 39 / 59
Isotropic Tensors
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
yIsotropic Tensors
yIsotropic Tensors 2
yIsotropic Tensors 3
yExample 9
yExample 9 contd
yExample 9 contd
Pseudotensors
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 40 / 59
All components of
ij
and c
ijk
tensors have values that are the
same whatever the rotation of axes is made, i.e. the component
values are independent of the transformation 1
ij
.
For example,
11
has the value 1 in all coordinate frames. These
tensors are called isotropic (or invariant) tensors.
We will now show that, to within a scalar multiple,
ij
is the only
second-order isotropic tensors.
Isotropic Tensors 2
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
yIsotropic Tensors
yIsotropic Tensors 2
yIsotropic Tensors 3
yExample 9
yExample 9 contd
yExample 9 contd
Pseudotensors
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 41 / 59
Let us begin with isotropic second-order tensors. Suppose T
ij
is
an isotropic tensor. Then, for any rotation of the axes we have
T
ij
= T
0
ij
= 1
ik
1
jl
T
kl
. (35)
First consider the rotation of the axes about the (1,1,1) direction,
which takes O.
1
, O.
2
, O.
3
into O.
0
2
, O.
0
3
, O.
0
1
, respectively.
For this rotation, 1
13
= 1, 1
21
= 1, 1
32
= 1 and all other
1
ij
= 0. This requires that T
11
= T
0
11
= T
33
. Similarly,
T
12
= T
0
12
= T
31
. Continuing in this way, we nd
(a) T
11
= T
22
= T
33
.
(b) T
12
= T
23
= T
31
.
(c) T
21
= T
32
= T
13
.
Isotropic Tensors 3
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
yIsotropic Tensors
yIsotropic Tensors 2
yIsotropic Tensors 3
yExample 9
yExample 9 contd
yExample 9 contd
Pseudotensors
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 42 / 59
Next consider the rotation of the axes (from their original position)
by ,2 about the O.
3
-axis. In this case 1
12
= 1, 1
21
= 1,
1
33
= 1 and all other 1
ij
= 0. Thus, from Eq. 35, we have
T
13
= (1) 1 T
23
.
T
23
= 1 1 T
13
.
Hence, T
13
= T
23
= 0 and therefore, by parts (b) and (c) above,
each element T
ij
= 0 except for T
11
, T
22
and T
33
, which are all
the same. This shows that T
ij
= z
ij
.
Example 9
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
yIsotropic Tensors
yIsotropic Tensors 2
yIsotropic Tensors 3
yExample 9
yExample 9 contd
yExample 9 contd
Pseudotensors
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 43 / 59
Example
Show that zc
ijk
is the only isotropic third-order Cartesian tensor.
Solution
The general line of attack is as above and so only a minimum of
explanation will be given
T
ijk
= T
0
ijk
= 1
il
1
jm
1
kn
T
lmn
.
Rotate about the (1,1,1) direction: this is equivalent to making
subscript permutations 1 2 3 1. We nd
(a) T
111
= T
222
= T
333
,
(b) T
112
= T
223
= T
331
,
Example 9 contd
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
yIsotropic Tensors
yIsotropic Tensors 2
yIsotropic Tensors 3
yExample 9
yExample 9 contd
yExample 9 contd
Pseudotensors
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 44 / 59
(c) T
123
= T
231
= T
312
(and a set involving odd permutations
of 1, 2, 3).
Rotate by ,2 about the O.
3
-axis: 1
12
= 1, 1
21
= 1, 1
33
= 1,
other 1
ij
= 0.
(d) T
111
= (1) (1) (1) T
222
= T
222
,
(e) T
112
= (1) (1) 1 T
221
,
(f) T
221
= 1 1 (1) T
112
,
(g) T
123
= (1) 1 1 T
213
.
Relations (a) and (d) show that the elements with all subscripts the
same are zero. Relations (e), (f) and (b) show that all elements
with repeated subscripts are zero. Relations (g) and (c) show that
T
123
= T
231
= T
312
= T
213
= T
321
= T
132
.
Example 9 contd
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
yIsotropic Tensors
yIsotropic Tensors 2
yIsotropic Tensors 3
yExample 9
yExample 9 contd
yExample 9 contd
Pseudotensors
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 45 / 59
In total, T
ijk
differs from c
ijk
by at most a scalar factor, but since
c
ijk
(and hence zc
ijk
) has already been explicitly shown to be an
isotropic tensor, T
ijk
must be the most general third-order isotropic
Cartesian tensor.
Improper Rotations and Pseudotensors
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
yPseudotensors
yPseudotensors 2
yPseudotensors 3
yExample 10
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 46 / 59
Improper Rotations and Pseudotensors
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
yPseudotensors
yPseudotensors 2
yPseudotensors 3
yExample 10
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 47 / 59
A rotation transformation in which the determinant of an associated
orthogonal matrix L is [1[ = 1 is called a proper rotation.
Transformations in which [1[ = 1 are called improper
transformations.
This kind of transformation can always be considered as an
inversion of the coordinate axes through the origin represented by
the equation
.
0
i
= .
i
(36)
combined with proper rotation.
The transformation may alternatively be looked upon as one that
changes an initially right-handed coordinate system into a
left-handed one.
Improper Rotations and Pseudotensors 2
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
yPseudotensors
yPseudotensors 2
yPseudotensors 3
yExample 10
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 48 / 59
An object that transforms as
0
i
= 1
ij

j
under proper rotations
and as
0
i
= 1
ij

j
under improper rotations is called a
pseudovector (or pseudotensor). It is important to realize that a
pseudovector is not a geometrical object (or a real physical arrow
in space).
FIG. 2: The behaviour of a vector v and a pseudovector p under a
reection through the origin of the coordinate system .
1
,.
2
, .
3
giving the
new system .
0
1
,.
0
2
, .
0
3
.
Improper Rotations and Pseudotensors 3
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
yPseudotensors
yPseudotensors 2
yPseudotensors 3
yExample 10
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 49 / 59
In general, the components of Cartesian pseudotensors of
arbitrary order transform as
T
0
ij:::k
= [L[1
il
1
jm
. . . 1
kn
T
lm:::n
. (37)
where [L[ is the determinant of the transformation matrix.
For example, we have
c
0
ijk
= [L[1
il
1
jm
1
kn
c
lmn
.
Thus, c
ijk
is a third-order Cartesian pseudotensor.
Example 10
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
yPseudotensors
yPseudotensors 2
yPseudotensors 3
yExample 10
Applications
Paul Lim Tensors 50 / 59
Example
If b
j
and c
k
are the components of vectors, show that the
quantities a
i
= c
ijk
b
j
c
k
form the components of a pseudovector.
Solution
a
0
i
= c
0
ijk
b
0
j
c
0
k
= [L[1
il
1
jm
1
kn
c
lmn
1
jp
b
p
1
kq
c
q
= [L[1
il
c
lmn

mp

nq
b
p
c
q
= [L[1
il
c
lmn
b
m
c
n
= [L[1
il
a
l
.
Thus a
i
is a pseudovector.
Physical applications of tensors
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
yInertia
yApplications 2
yApplications 3
yExample 11
yExample 12
yExample 12 contd
yIntegral theorems
yExample 13
Paul Lim Tensors 51 / 59
Moment of Inertia
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
yInertia
yApplications 2
yApplications 3
yExample 11
yExample 12
yExample 12 contd
yIntegral theorems
yExample 13
Paul Lim Tensors 52 / 59
Consider a collection of rigidly connected point particles of which
the th, with mass m
./
, is typical, and is positioned at r
./
with
respect to an origin O. Suppose that the rigid assembly is rotating
about an axis through O with angular velocity !.
The angular momentum J about O of the assembly is given by
J =
X

r
./
p
./

.
But p
./
= m
./
r
./
and r
./
= o r
./
so that
Physical applications of tensors 2
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
yInertia
yApplications 2
yApplications 3
yExample 11
yExample 12
yExample 12 contd
yIntegral theorems
yExample 13
Paul Lim Tensors 53 / 59
J
i
=
X

m
./
c
ijk
.
./
j
.
./
k
=
X

m
./
c
ijk
.
./
j
c
klm
o
l
.
./
m
=
X

m
./
(
il

jm

im

jl
).
./
j
.
./
m
o
l
=
X

m
./

r
./

il
.
./
i
.
./
l

o
l
1
il
o
l
. (38)
where 1
il
is a symmetric second-order Cartesian tensor and is
called the inertia tensor at O of the assembly.
.
Physical applications of tensors 3
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
yInertia
yApplications 2
yApplications 3
yExample 11
yExample 12
yExample 12 contd
yIntegral theorems
yExample 13
Paul Lim Tensors 54 / 59
For a continuous rigid body, m
./
must be replaced by j(r)d.d,d:
so that
1
ij
=
0
@
R
(,
2
:
2
)j dV
R
.,j dV
R
.:j dV

R
.,j dV
R
(:
2
.
2
)j dV
R
,:j dV

R
.:j dV
R
,:j dV
R
(.
2
,
2
)j dV
1
A
.
Example 11
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
yInertia
yApplications 2
yApplications 3
yExample 11
yExample 12
yExample 12 contd
yIntegral theorems
yExample 13
Paul Lim Tensors 55 / 59
Example
Show that the kinetic energy of the rotating system is given by
T =
1
2
1
jl
o
j
o
l
.
Solution
T =
1
2
X

m
./
( r
./
r
./
)
=
1
2
X

m
./
c
ijk
o
j
.
./
k
c
i lm
o
l
.
./
m
=
1
2
X

m
./
(
jl

km

jm

kl
).
./
k
.
./
m
o
j
o
l
=
1
2
X

m
./

jl

r
./

2
.
./
j
.
./
l

o
j
o
l
=
1
2
1
jl
o
j
o
l
.
Note that, since J
j
D I
jl
!
l
, we may write T D
1
2
J
j
!
j
.
Example 12
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
yInertia
yApplications 2
yApplications 3
yExample 11
yExample 12
yExample 12 contd
yIntegral theorems
yExample 13
Paul Lim Tensors 56 / 59
Example
The electrical conductivity o in a crystal is measured by an
observer to have the components
o
ij
| =
0
@
1
_
2 0
_
2 3 1
0 1 1
1
A
. (39)
Show that there is one direction in the crystal along which no
current can ow. Does the current ow equally easily in the two
perpendicular directions?
Solution
Since o
ij
| is a symmetric matrix, it possess three mutually
perpendicular eigenvectors (or principal axes), with respect to
which the conductivity tensor is diagonal, with diagonal entries z
1
,
z
2
, z
3
.
Example 12 contd
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
yInertia
yApplications 2
yApplications 3
yExample 11
yExample 12
yExample 12 contd
yIntegral theorems
yExample 13
Paul Lim Tensors 57 / 59
The eigenvalues are given by

1 z
_
2 0
_
2 3 z 1
0 1 1 z

= 0.
from which we obtain
(1 z)(3 z)(1 z) 1| 2(1 z) = 0.
This gives z = 0. 1. 4 so that with respect to the principal axes,
o
0
ij
| =
0
@
4 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0
1
A
.
Since
0
i
= o
0
ij
1
0
j
, there is no current ow along one of the principal axes
and along the two J directions, the current ows are not equal.
Integral theorems for tensors
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
yInertia
yApplications 2
yApplications 3
yExample 11
yExample 12
yExample 12 contd
yIntegral theorems
yExample 13
Paul Lim Tensors 58 / 59
The divergence theorem states that for, any vector eld a,
Z
V
V a dV =
I
S
a ndS. (40)
where S is the surface enclosing the volume V and n is the
outward-pointing unit normal to S at each point.
It can be rewritten as
Z
V
da
k
d.
k
dV =
I
S
a
k
n
k
dS. (41)
Eq. 41 can be extended so that the form of the divergence theorem
for general tensors is
Z
V
dT
ij:::k:::m
d.
k
dV =
I
S
T
ij:::k:::m
n
k
dS.
Example 13
TENSORS
1
st
& 0
th
order CT
Higher-order CT
Quotient Law

ij
and
ijk
Isotropic Tensors
Pseudotensors
Applications
yInertia
yApplications 2
yApplications 3
yExample 11
yExample 12
yExample 12 contd
yIntegral theorems
yExample 13
Paul Lim Tensors 59 / 59
Example
A vector eld a satises V a = 0 inside some volume V and
a n = 0 on the boundary surface S. By considering the
divergence theorem applied to T
ij
= .
i
a
j
, show that
R
V
a dV = 0.
Solution
Applying the divergence theorem to T
ij
= .
i
a
j
, we nd
Z
V
dT
ij
d.
j
dV =
Z
V
d(.
i
a
j
)
d.
j
dV =
I
S
.
i
a
j
n
j
dS = 0.
since a
j
n
j
= 0. By expanding the volume integral, we get
Z
V
d(.
i
a
j
)
d.
j
dV =
Z
V
d.
i
d.
j
a
j
dV
Z
V
.
i
da
j
d.
j
dV
=
Z
V

ij
a
j
dV =
Z
V
a
i
dV = 0.