5 Group Theory

Group Theory
Group Theory
yIntroduction
yIntroduction 2
yDenition
yDenition 2
yExample 1
yExample 1 contd
yUniqueness of I
yInverse of product
yFurther Properties
yFurther Properties 2
yExample 2
yExample 2 contd
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Equiv Relation, Class
Congruence & Cosets
Paul Lim Group Theory 1 / 78
Introduction
Group Theory
yIntroduction
yIntroduction 2
yDenition
yDenition 2
yExample 1
yExample 1 contd
yUniqueness of I
yInverse of product
yFurther Properties
yExample 2
yExample 2 contd
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
Consider the sets of operations, such as rotations, reections and
inversions which transform physical objects (e.g. molecules) into
physically indistinguishable copies of themselves so that only the
labeling of identical components of the system (the atoms)
changes in the process.
Introduction 2
Group Theory
yIntroduction
yIntroduction 2
yDenition
yDenition 2
yExample 1
yExample 1 contd
yUniqueness of I
yInverse of product
yFurther Properties
yExample 2
yExample 2 contd
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
FIG. 1: (a) The hydrogen
molecule, and (b) the ammo-
nia molecule.
The hydrogen molecule consists of
two atoms H of hydrogen, and is
carried into itself by any of the fol-
lowing operations:
(i) any rotation about its long
axis
(ii) rotation through about
an axis perpendicular to
the long axis and passing
through the point M that lies
midway between the atoms
(iii) inversion through the point
M
(iv) reection in the plane that
passes through M and has
its normal parallel to the long
axis
These operations collectively form
a set of symmetry operations for
the hydrogen molecule.
Denition of a Group
Group Theory
yIntroduction
yIntroduction 2
yDenition
yDenition 2
yExample 1
yExample 1 contd
yUniqueness of I
yInverse of product
yFurther Properties
yExample 2
yExample 2 contd
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
A group G is a set of elements {X; Y; : : : ], together with a rule for
combining them that associates with each ordered pair X, Y a
product or combination law X v Y for which the conditions must
be satised.
(i) For every pair of elements X, Y that belongs to G, the
product X v Y also belongs to G (This is known as the
closure property of the group).
(ii) For all triples X, Y , Z the associative law holds i.e.
X v .Y v Z/ = .X v Y / v Z (1)
Denition of a Group 2
Group Theory
yIntroduction
yIntroduction 2
yDenition
yDenition 2
yExample 1
yExample 1 contd
yUniqueness of I
yInverse of product
yFurther Properties
yExample 2
yExample 2 contd
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
(iii) There exists a unique element I, belonging to G, with the
property that
I v X = X = X v I (2)
for all X belonging to G. This element I is known as the
identity element of the group.
(iv) For every element X of G, there exists an element X
1
, also
belonging to G such that
X
1
v X = I = X v X
1
(3)
X
1
is called the inverse of X.
An alternative notation in common use is to write the elements of a
group G as the set {G
1
; G
2
; : : : ] or {G
i
].
Group Theory
yIntroduction
yIntroduction 2
yDenition
yDenition 2
yExample 1
yExample 1 contd
yUniqueness of I
yInverse of product
yFurther Properties
yExample 2
yExample 2 contd
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
Finite group: the number of elements is nite (order of group g).
X v Y denotes operation Y followed by X.
If any two particular elements of a group satisfy
Y v X = X v Y (4)
they are said to commute under the operation v; if all pairs of
elements in a group satisfy (4), then the group is said to be Abelian.
Eg: The set of all integers forms an Abelian group under addition.
Example 1
Group Theory
yIntroduction
yIntroduction 2
yDenition
yDenition 2
yExample 1
yExample 1 contd
yUniqueness of I
yInverse of product
yFurther Properties
yExample 2
yExample 2 contd
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
Example
Using only the rst equalities in (2) and (3), deduce the second
ones.
Solution
Consider the expression X
1
v .X v X
1
/;
X
1
v .X v X
1
/
.ii/
= .X
1
v X/ v X
1
.iv/
= I v X
1
.iii/
= X
1
(5)
But X
1
belongs to G, and so from (iv) there is an element U in G
such that
U v X
1
= I .v/
Form the product of U with two extremes of (5) to give
U v .X
1
v .X v X
1
// = U v X
1
.v/
= I: (6)
Example 1 contd
Group Theory
yIntroduction
yIntroduction 2
yDenition
yDenition 2
yExample 1
yExample 1 contd
yUniqueness of I
yInverse of product
yFurther Properties
yExample 2
yExample 2 contd
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
Transforming the LHS of this equation gives
U v .X
1
v .X v X
1
//
.ii/
= .U v X
1
/ v .X v X
1
/
.v/
= I v .X v X
1
/
.iii/
= X v X
1
(7)
Comparing (6) and (7) shows that
X v X
1
= I .iv/
0
i.e. the second equality in group denition (iv). Similarly
X v I
.iv/
= X v .X
1
v X/
.ii/
= .X v X
1
/ v X
.iv/
0
= I v X
.iii/
= X: .iii
0
/ i.e. the second equality in group denition (iii)
Uniqueness of Identity Element
Group Theory
yIntroduction
yIntroduction 2
yDenition
yDenition 2
yExample 1
yExample 1 contd
yUniqueness of I
yInverse of product
yFurther Properties
yExample 2
yExample 2 contd
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
Suppose that I
0
, belonging to G, also has the property
I
0
v X = X = X v I
0
for all X belonging to G
Take X as I, then
I
0
v I = I (8)
Further from .iii
0
/,
X = X v I for all X belonging to G
and setting X = I
0
gives
I
0
= I
0
v I (9)
It then follows from (8), (9) that I = I
0
, showing that in any
particular group the identity element is unique.
Inverse of product
Group Theory
yIntroduction
yIntroduction 2
yDenition
yDenition 2
yExample 1
yExample 1 contd
yUniqueness of I
yInverse of product
yFurther Properties
yExample 2
yExample 2 contd
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
Consider the product:
.U v V v v Y v Z/ v
.Z
1
v Y
1
v v V
1
v U
1
/
= .U v V v v Y / v .Z v Z
1
/ v
.Y
1
v v V
1
v U
1
/
= .U v V v v Y / v
.Y
1
v v V
1
v U
1
/
:
:
:
= I
where use has been made of the associativity and of the equations
Z v Z
1
= I and I v X = X.
) .U v V v v Y v Z/
1
= .Z
1
v Y
1
v v V
1
v U
1
/ (10)
Further Properties
Group Theory
yIntroduction
yIntroduction 2
yDenition
yDenition 2
yExample 1
yExample 1 contd
yUniqueness of I
yInverse of product
yFurther Properties
yExample 2
yExample 2 contd
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
Further elementary results are
(i) Division Axiom: Given any pair of elements X, Y belonging
to G, there exist unique elements U, V also belonging to G,
such that
X v U = Y and V v X = Y
Clearly U = X
1
v Y and V = Y v X
1
.
(ii) Cancellation Law: If
X v Y = X v Z
for some X belonging to G, then Y = Z. Similarly,
Y v X = Z v X
implies the same conclusion.
Further Properties 2
Group Theory
yIntroduction
yIntroduction 2
yDenition
yDenition 2
yExample 1
yExample 1 contd
yUniqueness of I
yInverse of product
yFurther Properties
yExample 2
yExample 2 contd
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
(iii) Permutation Law: Forming the product of each element of G
with a xed element X of G simply permutes the elements of
G; this is often written symbolically as G v X = G. If this
were not so, and X v Y and X v Z were not different even
though Y and Z were, application of the cancellation law
would lead to a contradiction.
Order of element: In any nite group of order g, any element X
when combined with itself to form successively X
2
= X v X,
X
3
= X v X
2
, . . . will, after at most g 1 such combinations,
produce the group identity I. If the number of combinations
needed is m 1 i.e. X
m
= I, then m is called the order of the
element X in G.
Example 2
Group Theory
yIntroduction
yIntroduction 2
yDenition
yDenition 2
yExample 1
yExample 1 contd
yUniqueness of I
yInverse of product
yFurther Properties
yExample 2
yExample 2 contd
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
Example
Determine the order of the group of (two-dimensional) rotations
and reections that take a plane equilateral triangle into itself, and
the order of each of the elements. The group is usually known as
3m (to physicists and crystallographers) or C
3v
(to chemists).
FIG. 2: Reections in the three perpendicular bisectors of the sides of an
equilateral triangle take the triangle into itself.
Example 2 contd
Group Theory
yIntroduction
yIntroduction 2
yDenition
yDenition 2
yExample 1
yExample 1 contd
yUniqueness of I
yInverse of product
yFurther Properties
yExample 2
yExample 2 contd
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
Solution
Two clockwise rotations, by 2=3 and 4=3, about an axis
perpendicular to the plane of the triangle
Reections in the perpendicular bisectors of the three sides
Identity operation
In total, there are six distinct operations and g = 6 for this
group
Each rotation element of the group has order 3, and each reection
element has order 2.
Cyclic Group
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
yCyclic Group
yFurther Examples
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
Cyclic Group
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
yCyclic Group
yFurther Examples
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
A so-called cyclic group is one for which all members of the group
can be generated from just one element X (say). Thus a cyclic
group of order g can be written as
G = {I; X; X
2
; X
3
; : : : ; X
g1
]
Cyclic groups are always Abelian. Also, each element, apart from
the identity, has order g, the order of the group itself, provided g is
a prime number.
Further Examples of Groups
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
yCyclic Group
yFurther Examples
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
Integers form a group under ordinary addition, but they do not
do so under ordinary multiplication. 1 is the identity, but the
inverse of any integer n, namely, 1=n, does not belong to the
set of integers.
Groups: sets of all real numbers, or of all complex numbers,
under addition, and of the same two sets excluding 0 under
multiplication. All of these groups are Abelian.
Complex numbers with unit modulus i.e. of the form e
i
where 0 _ < 2, form a group under multiplication:
e
i
1
e
i
2
= e
i.
1
C
2
/
.closure/
e
i0
= 1 .identity/
e
i.2/
e
i
= e
i2
e
i0
= 1 .inverse/
Finite Groups
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
yFinite Groups
yFinite Groups 2
yMultiplicat
n
Table
yMultiplicat
n
Table 2
yMultiplicat
n
Table 3
yExample 3
yExample 3 contd
yExample 3 contd
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
Finite groups: Example
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
yFinite Groups
yFinite Groups 2
yMultiplicat
n
Table
yMultiplicat
n
Table 2
yMultiplicat
n
Table 3
yExample 3
yExample 3 contd
yExample 3 contd
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
Consider the set S dened as
S = {1; 3; 5; 7] under multiplication (mod 8)
Product (mod 8) of any two elements: multiply them together, and
then divide by 8, the remainder is the product of the two elements.
Since Y Z = Z Y , the full set of different products is
1 1 = 1; 1 3 = 3; 1 5 = 5; 1 7 = 7;
3 3 = 1; 3 5 = 7; 3 7 = 5;
5 5 = 1; 5 7 = 3;
7 7 = 1
Abelian group of order 4.
Finite groups 2
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
yFinite Groups
yFinite Groups 2
yMultiplicat
n
Table
yMultiplicat
n
Table 2
yMultiplicat
n
Table 3
yExample 3
yExample 3 contd
yExample 3 contd
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
It is convenient to present the results of combining any two
elements of a group in the form of multiplication tables.
1 3 5 7
1 1 3 5 7
3 3 1 7 5
5 5 7 1 3
7 7 5 3 1
Table 1: The table of products for the elements of the group
S = {1; 3; 5; 7] under multiplication (mod 8).
Multiplication Tables
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
yFinite Groups
yFinite Groups 2
yMultiplicat
n
Table
yMultiplicat
n
Table 2
yMultiplicat
n
Table 3
yExample 3
yExample 3 contd
yExample 3 contd
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
Some simple general properties of group multiplication tables:
1. Each element appears once and only once in each row or
column of the tablePermutation law: G v X = G.
2. The inverse of any element Y can be found by looking along
the row in which Y appears in the left-hand column, and
noting the element Z at the head of the column in which the
identity appears as the table entry.
When the identity appears on the leading diagonal, the
corresponding header element is of order 2 (unless it is the
identity).
3. For any Abelian group the multiplication table is symmetric
about the leading diagonal.
Multiplication Tables 2
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
yFinite Groups
yFinite Groups 2
yMultiplicat
n
Table
yMultiplicat
n
Table 2
yMultiplicat
n
Table 3
yExample 3
yExample 3 contd
yExample 3 contd
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
Consider two sets of integers under multiplication (mod N):
S
0
= {1; 5; 7; 11] under multiplication (mod 24)
and
S
00
= {1; 2; 3; 4] under multiplication (mod 5)
.a/
1 5 7 11
1 1 5 7 11
5 5 1 11 7
7 7 11 1 5
11 11 7 5 1
.b/
1 2 3 4
1 1 2 3 4
2 2 4 1 3
3 3 1 4 2
4 4 3 2 1
TABLE. 2: On the left, the multiplication table for the group
S
0
= {1; 5; 7; 11] under multiplication (mod 24). On the right,
multiplication is (mod 5).
Multiplication Tables 3
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
yFinite Groups
yFinite Groups 2
yMultiplicat
n
Table
yMultiplicat
n
Table 2
yMultiplicat
n
Table 3
yExample 3
yExample 3 contd
yExample 3 contd
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
I A B C
I I A B C
A A I C B
B B C I A
C C B A I
TABLE. 3: The common structure exemplied by previous two tables.
These two groups S = {1; 3; 5; 7] and S
0
= {1; 5; 7; 11] have
equivalent group multiplication tablesthey are said to be
isomorphic.
Example 3
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
yFinite Groups
yFinite Groups 2
yMultiplicat
n
Table
yMultiplicat
n
Table 2
yMultiplicat
n
Table 3
yExample 3
yExample 3 contd
yExample 3 contd
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
Example
Determine the behaviour of the set of four elements {1; i; 1; i ]
under the ordinary multiplication of complex numbers. Show that
they form a group and determine whether the group is isomorphic
to either of the groups S (itself isomorphic to S
0
and S
00
dened
above.
Solution
1 i 1 i
1 1 i 1 i
i i 1 i 1
1 1 i 1 i
i i 1 i 1
Table. 4: The group table for the set {1; i; 1; i ] under ordinary
multiplication of complex numbers.
-
)
Example 3 contd
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
yFinite Groups
yFinite Groups 2
yMultiplicat
n
Table
yMultiplicat
n
Table 2
yMultiplicat
n
Table 3
yExample 3
yExample 3 contd
yExample 3 contd
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
Form a group under associative operation of complex numbers.
Group {1; i; 1; i ] is NOT isomorphic to S or S
0
(Table 3): Since
identity element 1 only appears on the leading diagonal twice
whereas I appears on the leading diagonal four times in Table 3,
Table 4 cannot be brought into the form of Table 3.
1 i 1 i
1 1 i 1 i
i i 1 i 1
1 1 i 1 i
i i 1 i 1
1 2 4 3
1 1 2 4 3
2 2 4 3 1
4 4 3 1 2
3 3 1 2 4
Table. 5: A comparison between Tables 4 and 2 (b), the latter with its
column reordered.
Example 3 contd
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
yFinite Groups
yFinite Groups 2
yMultiplicat
n
Table
yMultiplicat
n
Table 2
yMultiplicat
n
Table 3
yExample 3
yExample 3 contd
yExample 3 contd
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
However, if the rows and columns of Table 2 (b) are rearranged,
then the two tables can be compared (Table 5).
I A B C
I I A B C
A A B C I
B B C I A
C C I A B
TABLE. 6: The common structure exemplied by Tables 4 and 2(b), the
latter with its columns reordered.
They have the same structure as Table 6. Thus, the group
{1; i; 1; i ] under ordinary multiplication of complex numbers is
isomorphic to the group {1; 2; 3; 4] under multiplication (mod 5).
Non-Abelian Groups
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
yNon-Abelian
yNon-Abelian 2
yNon-Abelian 3
yNon-Abelian 4
yNon-Abelian 5
yExample 4
yExample 4 contd
yExample 5
yExample 5 contd
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
To be non-Abelian, a group needs at least 6 elements.
Non-Abelian groups
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
yNon-Abelian
yNon-Abelian 2
yNon-Abelian 3
yNon-Abelian 4
yNon-Abelian 5
yExample 4
yExample 4 contd
yExample 5
yExample 5 contd
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
Consider as elements of a group the 2D operations which
transform an equilateral triangle into itself. There are six such
operations; the null operation, two rotations (by 2=3 and 4=3
about an axis perpendicular to the plane of the triangle) and three
reections in the perpendicular bisectors of the three sides.
Denote these operations by the following symbols:
1. I is the null operation.
2. R is a (clockwise) rotation by 2=3, and R
0
that by 4=3.
3. K; L; M are reections in the three lines indicated in
Figure 2.
Non-Abelian groups 2
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
yNon-Abelian
yNon-Abelian 2
yNon-Abelian 3
yNon-Abelian 4
yNon-Abelian 5
yExample 4
yExample 4 contd
yExample 5
yExample 5 contd
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
Thus,
R v R = R
0
; R
0
v R
0
= R; R v R
0
= I = R
0
v R
K v K = L v L = M v M = I
(11)
Others, such as K v M, can be found by drawing a sequence of
diagrams such as those following.
showing that K v M = R
0
.
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
yNon-Abelian
yNon-Abelian 2
yNon-Abelian 3
yNon-Abelian 4
yNon-Abelian 5
yExample 4
yExample 4 contd
yExample 5
yExample 5 contd
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
Similarly,
shows that M v K = R, and
shows that R v L = K.
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
yNon-Abelian
yNon-Abelian 2
yNon-Abelian 3
yNon-Abelian 4
yNon-Abelian 5
yExample 4
yExample 4 contd
yExample 5
yExample 5 contd
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
The multiplication table is shown below:
I R R
0
K L M
I I R R
0
K L M
R R R
0
I M K L
R
0
R
0
I R L M K
K K L M I R R
0
L L M K R
0
I R
M M K L R R
0
I
Table. 7: The group table for the two-dimensional symmetry operations
on an equilateral triangle.
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
yNon-Abelian
yNon-Abelian 2
yNon-Abelian 3
yNon-Abelian 4
yNon-Abelian 5
yExample 4
yExample 4 contd
yExample 5
yExample 5 contd
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
A number of things may be noticed from this table.
(i) It is not symmetric about the leading diagonal, indicating that
some pairs of elements in the group do not commute.
(ii) There is some symmetry within the 3 3 blocks that form the
four quarters of the table. This occurs because similar
operations are put close to each other when choosing the
order of table headingsthe two rotations, followed by the
three reections.
Example 4
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
yNon-Abelian
yNon-Abelian 2
yNon-Abelian 3
yNon-Abelian 4
yNon-Abelian 5
yExample 4
yExample 4 contd
yExample 5
yExample 5 contd
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
Consider the set M of six orthogonal 2 2 matrices given by
I D
0
@
1 0
0 1
1
A
A D
0
@
1
2
p
3
2
p
3
2

1
2
1
A
B D
0
@
1
2

p
3
2
p
3
2

1
2
1
A
C D
0
@
1 0
0 1
1
A
D D
0
@
1
2

p
3
2
p
3
2

1
2
1
A
E D
0
@
1
2
p
3
2
p
3
2

1
2
1
A
(12)
the combination law being that of ordinary multiplication. Note that
the matrices are group elements.
Example 4 contd
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
yNon-Abelian
yNon-Abelian 2
yNon-Abelian 3
yNon-Abelian 4
yNon-Abelian 5
yExample 4
yExample 4 contd
yExample 5
yExample 5 contd
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
Identity element: matrix I; I; C; D and E being their own inverses;
inverse of A: B.
I A B C D E
I I A B C D E
A A B I E C D
B B I A D E C
C C D E I A B
D D E C B I A
E E C D A B I
Table. 8: The group table, under matrix multiplication, for the set M of six
orthogonal 2 2 matrices given by (12)
If {R; R
0
; K; L; M] of Table 7 are replaced by {A; B; C; D; E]
respectively, the two tables are identical. The two groups are thus
isomorphic.
Example 5
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
yNon-Abelian
yNon-Abelian 2
yNon-Abelian 3
yNon-Abelian 4
yNon-Abelian 5
yExample 4
yExample 4 contd
yExample 5
yExample 5 contd
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
Consider a set of functions of an undetermined variable x. The
functions are as follows:
f
1
.x/ = x; f
2
.x/ = 1=.1 x/; f
3
.x/ = .x 1/=x
f
4
.x/ = 1=x; f
5
.x/ = 1 x; f
6
.x/ = x=.x 1/
and the law of combination is
f
i
.x/ v f
j
.x/ = f
i
.f
j
.x//
To calculate the product f
6
v f
3
: The product will be the function of
x obtained by evaluating y=.y 1/, when y is set equal to
.x 1/=x. Thus,
f
6
.f
3
/ =
.x 1/x
.x 1/=x 1
= 1 x = f
5
.x/
) f
6
v f
3
= f
5
.
/
Example 5 contd
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
yNon-Abelian
yNon-Abelian 2
yNon-Abelian 3
yNon-Abelian 4
yNon-Abelian 5
yExample 4
yExample 4 contd
yExample 5
yExample 5 contd
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
Similarly,
f
6
v f
6
=
x=.x 1/
x.x 1/ 1
= x = f
1
(13)
Note that if the symbols f
1
; f
2
; f
3
; f
4
; f
5
; f
5
; f
6
are replaced by
I; A; B; C; D; E respectively, the group table becomes identical to
Table 8.
Permutation Groups
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
yPermutat
n
Groups
yPermutat
n
Notat
n
yPermutat
n
Notat
n
2
yCycle Notation
yCycle Notation 2
yCycle Notation 3
yCycle Notation 4
yCycle Notation 5
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
Permutation Groups
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
yPermutat
n
Groups
yPermutat
n
Notat
n
yPermutat
n
Notat
n
2
yCycle Notation
yCycle Notation 2
yCycle Notation 3
yCycle Notation 4
yCycle Notation 5
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
The operation of rearranging n distinct objects amongst
themselves is called a permutation of degree n.
Example: The symmetry operations on an equilateral triangle can
be considered as the six possible rearrangements of the marked
corners of the triangle amongst three xed points in space.
Example: The symmetry operations on a cube can be viewed as a
rearrangement of its corners amongst eight points in space or as a
rearrangement of its body diagonals in space.
NOTE: It is the permutations and not the objects (represented by
letters a; b; c; : : : ), that form the elements of permutation groups.
Permutation Notation
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
yPermutat
n
Groups
yPermutat
n
Notat
n
yPermutat
n
Notat
n
2
yCycle Notation
yCycle Notation 2
yCycle Notation 3
yCycle Notation 4
yCycle Notation 5
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
The complete group of all permutations of degree n is denoted by
S
n
. The number of possible permutations of degree n is n (order
of S
n
).
Suppose the ordered set of six distinct objects {a b c d e f ] is
rearranged by some process into {b e f a d c]:
{a b c d e f ] = {b e f a d c];
where is a permutation of degree 6. The permutation can be
denoted by [2 5 6 1 4 3], since the rst object a is replaced by the
second b, the second b replaced by the fth e, the third by the sixth
f , etc.
The equation can then be written as
{a b c d e f ] = 2 5 6 1 4 3{a b c d e f ]
= {b e f a d c]:
Permutation Notation 2
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
yPermutat
n
Groups
yPermutat
n
Notat
n
yPermutat
n
Notat
n
2
yCycle Notation
yCycle Notation 2
yCycle Notation 3
yCycle Notation 4
yCycle Notation 5
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
If is a second permutation, also of degree 6, then the product
v is
v {a b c d e f ] = .{a b c d e f ]/:
Suppose that is the permutation [4 5 3 6 2 1]. then
v {a b c d e f ]
= 4 5 3 6 2 12 5 6 1 4 3{a b c d e f ]
= 4 5 3 6 2 1{b e f a d c]
= {a d f c e b]
= 1 4 6 3 5 2{a b c d e f ]
Written in terms of the permutation notation this result is
4 5 3 6 2 12 5 6 1 4 3 = 1 4 6 3 5 2:
Cycle Notation
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
yPermutat
n
Groups
yPermutat
n
Notat
n
yPermutat
n
Notat
n
2
yCycle Notation
yCycle Notation 2
yCycle Notation 3
yCycle Notation 4
yCycle Notation 5
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
For the permutation :
the 1st object, a, has been replaced by the 2nd, b;
the 2nd object, b, has been replaced by the 5th, e;
the 5th object, e, has been replaced by the 4th, d;
the 4th object, d, has been replaced by the 1st, a;
This brings us back to the beginning of a closed cycle, which is
conveniently represented by the notation (1 2 5 4), in which the
successive replacement positions are enclosed, in sequence, in
parentheses. Thus (1 2 5 4) means 2nd 1st, 5th 2nd, 4th
5th, 1st 4th.
Cycle Notation 2
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
yPermutat
n
Groups
yPermutat
n
Notat
n
yPermutat
n
Notat
n
2
yCycle Notation
yCycle Notation 2
yCycle Notation 3
yCycle Notation 4
yCycle Notation 5
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
The remaining two objects, c and f , are interchanged by , or
more formally, are rearranged according to a cycle of length 2, or
transposition, represented by (3 6). Thus the complete
representation of is
= .1254/.36/
The positions of objects that are unaltered by a permutation are
either placed by themselves in a pair of parentheses or omitted
altogether.
Thus the identity permutation of degree is
I = .1/.2/.3/.4/.5/.6/;
though in practice it is often shortened to (1).
Cycle Notation 3
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
yPermutat
n
Groups
yPermutat
n
Notat
n
yPermutat
n
Notat
n
2
yCycle Notation
yCycle Notation 2
yCycle Notation 3
yCycle Notation 4
yCycle Notation 5
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
The order of any permutation of degree n within the group S
n
is
given by the lowest common multiple (LCM) of the lengths of the
cycles. Thus I has order 1, and the permutation discussed
above has order 4 (the LCM of 4 and 2).
Expressed in cycle notation our second permutation is (3)(1 4
6)(2 5), and the product v is calculated as
.3/.1 4 6/.2 5/ v .1 2 5 4/.3 6/{a b c d e f ]
= .3/.1 4 6/.2 5/{b e f a d c]
= {a d f c e b]
= .1/.5/.2 4 3 6/{a b c d e f ]
Cycle Notation 4
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
yPermutat
n
Groups
yPermutat
n
Notat
n
yPermutat
n
Notat
n
2
yCycle Notation
yCycle Notation 2
yCycle Notation 3
yCycle Notation 4
yCycle Notation 5
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
Thus,
.3/.1 4 6/.2 5/ v .1 2 5 4/.3 6/ = .1/.5/.2 4 3 6/
has order 6 (the LCM of 1, 3 and 2) and v has order 4.
Consider the following group:
I = .1/.2/.3/ A = .1 2 3/ B = .1 3 2/
C = .1/.2 3/ D = .3/.1 2/ E = .2/.1 3/
A and B have order 3, whilst C, D and E have order 2. Their
combination products are exactly those corresponding to Table 8,
with I, C, D, and E being their own inverses.
Cycle Notation 5
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
yPermutat
n
Groups
yPermutat
n
Notat
n
yPermutat
n
Notat
n
2
yCycle Notation
yCycle Notation 2
yCycle Notation 3
yCycle Notation 4
yCycle Notation 5
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
For example
D v C{a b c] = .3/.1 2/ v .1/.2 3/{a b c]
= .3/.1 2/{a c b]
= {c a b]
= .3 2 1/{a b c]
= .1 3 2/{a b c]
= B{a b c]
The six permutations belonging to S
3
form another non-Abelian
group isomorphic to rotation-reection symmetry group of an
equilateral triangle.
Mapping between Groups
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
yMapping
yMapping 2
yMapping 3
yMapping 4
yMapping 5
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
Mappings between Groups
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
yMapping
yMapping 2
yMapping 3
yMapping 4
yMapping 5
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
When there is no ambiguity we will write the product of two
elements, X v Y , simply as XY .
If G and G
0
are two groups, we can study the effect of a mapping:
: G G
0
of G onto G
0
. If X is an element of G we denote its image in G
0
under the mapping by X
0
= .X/.
Mappings between Groups 2
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
yMapping
yMapping 2
yMapping 3
yMapping 4
yMapping 5
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
Let G and G
0
be two groups and a mapping of G G
0
. If for
any pair of elements X and Y in G
.XY /
0
= X
0
Y
0
then is called a homomorphism, and G
0
is said to be
homomorphic image of G.
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
yMapping
yMapping 2
yMapping 3
yMapping 4
yMapping 5
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
Three immediate consequences:
(i) If I is the identity of G, then IX = X for all X in G.
) X
0
= .IX/
0
= I
0
X
0
;
for all X
0
in G
0
. Thus, I
0
is the identity in G
0
.
(ii) Further,
I
0
= .XX
1
/
0
= X
0
.X
1
/
0
That is, .X
1
/
0
= .X
0
/
1
.
(iii) If element X in G is of order m, i.e. I = X
m
, then
I
0
= .X
m
/
0
= .XX
m1
/
0
= X
0
.X
m
/
0
= = X
0
X
0
: : : X
0

m factors
Two
This third consequence should not be here.
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
yMapping
yMapping 2
yMapping 3
yMapping 4
yMapping 5
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
The image of an element has the same order as the element.
What distinguishes an isomorphism from the more general
homomorphism are the requirements that in an isomorphism:
(I) different elements in G must map into different elements in G
0
(whereas in a homomorphism several elements in G may
have the same image in G
0
), that is, x
0
= y
0
must imply
x = y;
(II) any element in G
0
must be the image of some element in G.
Isomorphism.
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
yMapping
yMapping 2
yMapping 3
yMapping 4
yMapping 5
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
For a homomorphism, the set of elements of G whose image in G
0
is I
0
is
called the kernel of the homomorphism. In an isomorphism the kernel
consists of the identity I alone.
Example: Consider a mapping between the additive group of real
numbers R and the multiplicative group of complex numbers with unit
modulus, U.1/. Suppose that the mapping R U.1/ is
: x e
ix
then this is a homomorphism since
.x y/
0
e
i.xCy/
= e
ix
e
iy
= x
0
y
0
:
It is not an isomorphism since many (an innite number) of the elements
of R have the same image in U.1/. Eg., ; 3; 5; : : : in R all have the
image 1 in U.1/. Also, all elements of R of the form 2n, where n is an
integer, map onto the identity element in U.1/, and therefore form the
kernel of the homomorphism.
Subgroups
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
ySubgroups
ySubgroups 2
ySubgroups 3
ySubgroups 4
ySubgroups 5
ySubgroups 6
ySubgroups 7
ySubgroups 8
Congruence & Cosets
Subgroups
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
ySubgroups
ySubgroups 2
ySubgroups 3
ySubgroups 4
ySubgroups 5
ySubgroups 6
ySubgroups 7
ySubgroups 8
Congruence & Cosets
(a)
I A B C D E
I I A B C D E
A A B I E C D
B B I A D E C
C C D E I A B
D D E C B I A
E E C D A B I
(b)
I A B C
I I A B C
A A I C B
B B C I A
C C B A I
Table. 9: Reproduction of (a) Table 8 and (b) Table 3 with the relevant
subgroups shown in bold.
Tables 3 and 8 show that the upper left corners of each table have
properties associated with a group multiplication table (see
Table 9) (subgroup).
Subgroups 2
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
ySubgroups
ySubgroups 2
ySubgroups 3
ySubgroups 4
ySubgroups 5
ySubgroups 6
ySubgroups 7
ySubgroups 8
Congruence & Cosets
A subgroup of a group G is dened as any non-empty subset
H = {H
i
] of G, the elements of which themselves behave as a
group under the same rule of combination as applies in G itself.
The order of the subgroup (denoted by h or [H[) is equal to the
number of elements.
All groups G contain two trivial subgroups;
(i) G itself,
(ii) the set I consisting of the identity element alone.
All other subgroups are termed proper subgroups. In a group with
multiplication Table 8 the elements {I; A; B] form a proper
subgroup, as do {I; A] in a group with Table 3 as its group table.
Subgroups 3
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
ySubgroups
ySubgroups 2
ySubgroups 3
ySubgroups 4
ySubgroups 5
ySubgroups 6
ySubgroups 7
ySubgroups 8
Congruence & Cosets
Some groups have no proper subgroups.
(a)
I A B
I I A B
A A B I
B B I A
(b)
I A B C D
I I A B C D
A A B C D I
B B C D I A
C C D I A B
D D I A B C
Table. 10: The group tables of two cyclic groups, of orders 3 and 5. They
have no proper subgroups.
Tables 10(a) and (b) show the multiplication tables for two of these
groups.
Subgroups 4
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
ySubgroups
ySubgroups 2
ySubgroups 3
ySubgroups 4
ySubgroups 5
ySubgroups 6
ySubgroups 7
ySubgroups 8
Congruence & Cosets
The order of any group is a multiple of the order of any of its
subgroups (Lagranges theorem) i.e. in our general notation, g is a
multiple of h. Thus, a group of order p, where p is any prime, must
be cyclic and cannot have any proper subgroups [eg. Table 10(a)
and (b)].
Subgroups 5
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
ySubgroups
ySubgroups 2
ySubgroups 3
ySubgroups 4
ySubgroups 5
ySubgroups 6
ySubgroups 7
ySubgroups 8
Congruence & Cosets
Repeated multiplication of an element X (not the identity) by itself
will generate a subgroup {X; X
2
; X
3
; : : : ]. The subgroup will
clearly be Abelian, and if X is of order m i.e. X
m
= I, the
subgroup will have m distinct members.
If m is less than g, m must be a factor of g (Lagranges theorem).
Also, the order of any element of a group is an exact divisor of the
order of the group.
Subgroups 6
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
ySubgroups
ySubgroups 2
ySubgroups 3
ySubgroups 4
ySubgroups 5
ySubgroups 6
ySubgroups 7
ySubgroups 8
Congruence & Cosets
Some properties of the subgroups of a group G are as follows:
(i) The identity element of G belongs to every subgroup H.
(ii) If element X belongs to a subgroup H, so does X
1
.
(iii) The set of elements in G that belong to every subgroup of G,
themselves form a subgroup, though it may consist of the
identity alone.
Subgroups 7
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
ySubgroups
ySubgroups 2
ySubgroups 3
ySubgroups 4
ySubgroups 5
ySubgroups 6
ySubgroups 7
ySubgroups 8
Congruence & Cosets
Let : G G
0
be a homomorphism of G into G
0
, then
(i) the set of elements H
0
in G
0
that are images of the elements
of G form a subgroup of G
0
;
(ii) the set of elements K in G that are mapped onto the identity
I
0
in G
0
form a subgroup of G.
The subgroup K is called the kernel of the homomorphism.
Subgroups 8
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
ySubgroups
ySubgroups 2
ySubgroups 3
ySubgroups 4
ySubgroups 5
ySubgroups 6
ySubgroups 7
ySubgroups 8
Congruence & Cosets
To prove (i), suppose Z and W belong H
0
, with Z = X
0
and W = Y
0
,
where X and Y belong to G. Then
ZW = X
0
Y
0
= .XY /
0
and therefore belongs to H
0
, and
Z
1
= .X
0
/
1
= .X
1
/
0
and therefore belongs to H
0
. These two results, together with the fact
that I
0
belongs to H
0
, are enough to establish result (i).
To prove (ii), suppose X and Y belong to K, then
.XY /
0
= X
0
Y
0
= I
0
I
0
= I
0
.closure/
I
0
= .XX
1
/
0
= X
0
.X
1
/
0
= I
0
.X
1
/
0
= .X
1
/
0
and therefore X
1
belongs to K. These two results, together with the
fact that I belongs to K, are enough to establish result (ii).
Equivalence Relations and Classes
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
ySubdividing a Group
yEquiv Relations
yEquiv Classes
yEquiv Classes 2
Congruence & Cosets
Subdividing a Group
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
yEquiv Relations
yEquiv Classes
yEquiv Classes 2
Congruence & Cosets
We will identify ways in which the elements of a group can be
divided up into sets with the property that each element of the
group belongs to one, and only one, such set.
The subgroups of a group clearly do not form such a partition
because the identity element is in every subgroup (rather than
being in only one).
Equivalence Relations
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
yEquiv Relations
yEquiv Classes
yEquiv Classes 2
Congruence & Cosets
An equivalence relation on a set S is a relationship X - Y
between two elements X and Y belonging to S, in which the
denition of - must satisfy the requirements of
(i) reexivity, X - X;
(ii) symmetry, X - Y implies Y - X;
(iii) transitivity, X - Y and Y - Z imply X - Z.
Equivalence Classes
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
yEquiv Relations
yEquiv Classes
yEquiv Classes 2
Congruence & Cosets
Theorem:
An equivalence relation on S divides up S into classes C
i
such
that
(i) X and Y belong to the same class if, and only if, X - Y ;
(ii) every element W of S belongs to exactly one class.
Equivalence Classes 2
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
yEquiv Relations
yEquiv Classes
yEquiv Classes 2
Congruence & Cosets
Proof: (=) Let X belong to S, and dene the subset S
X
of S to be
the set of all elements U of S such that X - U. Clearly by
reexivity X belongs to S
X
. Suppose rst that X - Y , and let Z
be any element of S
Y
. Then Y - Z, and hence by transitivity
X - Z, which means that Z belongs to S
X
. Conversely, since the
symmetry law gives Y - X, if Z belongs to S
X
then this implies
that Z belongs to S
Y
. These two results together mean that the
two subsets S
X
and S
Y
have the same members and hence are
equal.
(=) Now suppose that S
X
equals S
Y
. Since Y belongs to S
Y
it
also belongs to S
X
and hence X - Y . This completes the proof of
(i), once the distinct subsets of type S
X
are identied as the
classes C
i
.
Statement (ii) is an immediate corollary, the class in question being
identied as S
W
.
Congruence and Cosets
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
yLagrange
yLagrange 2
yLagrange 3
yLagrange 4
yExample 6
yExample 6 contd
yConjugacy Class
yConjugacy Class 2
yConjugacy Class 3
yConjugacy Class 4
yExample 7
yExample 7 contd
Lagranges Theorem
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
yLagrange
yLagrange 2
yLagrange 3
yLagrange 4
yExample 6
yExample 6 contd
yConjugacy Class
yConjugacy Class 2
yConjugacy Class 3
yConjugacy Class 4
yExample 7
yExample 7 contd
Theorem:
If G is a nite group of order g, and H is a subgroup of G of order
h, then g is a multiple of h.
Proof:
Denition of -: given X and Y belonging to G, X - Y =X
1
Y
belongs to H.
ie. Y = XH
i
for some element H
i
belonging to H; X and Y are
said to be left-congruent with respect to H.
Lagranges Theorem 2
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
yLagrange
yLagrange 2
yLagrange 3
yLagrange 4
yExample 6
yExample 6 contd
yConjugacy Class
yConjugacy Class 2
yConjugacy Class 3
yConjugacy Class 4
yExample 7
yExample 7 contd
This denes an equivalence relation:
(i) Reexivity: X - X, since X
1
X = I and I belongs to any
subgroup.
(ii) Symmetry: X - Y implies that X
1
Y belongs to H, and so,
therefore, does its inverse, since H is a group. But
.X
1
Y /
1
= Y
1
X and, as this belongs to H, it follows
that Y - X.
(iii) Transitivity: X - Y and Y - Z imply that X
1
Y and Y
1
Z
belong to H, and so therefore does their product
.X
1
Y /.Y
1
Z/ = X
1
Z, from which it follows that X - Z.
Lagranges Theorem 3
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
yLagrange
yLagrange 2
yLagrange 3
yLagrange 4
yExample 6
yExample 6 contd
yConjugacy Class
yConjugacy Class 2
yConjugacy Class 3
yConjugacy Class 4
yExample 7
yExample 7 contd
Since - is an equivalence relation, it divides G into disjoint
classes, which are called the left cosets of H. Thus each element
of G is in one and only one left coset of H.
The left coset containing any particular X is written XH; it must
contain h different elements, since if it did not, and two elements
were equal,
XH
i
= XH
j
;
we have H
i
= H
j
and H contained fewer than h elements.
Thus the left cosets of H are a partition of G into a number of
sets each containing h members. Since there are g members of G,
and each must be in just one of the sets, it follows that g is a
multiple of h.
Lagranges Theorem 4
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
yLagrange
yLagrange 2
yLagrange 3
yLagrange 4
yExample 6
yExample 6 contd
yConjugacy Class
yConjugacy Class 2
yConjugacy Class 3
yConjugacy Class 4
yExample 7
yExample 7 contd
The number of left cosets of H in G is known as the index of H in
G and written G : H; numerically the index = g=h.
Lagranges theorem says that any group of order p, where p is a
prime, must be a cyclic and cannot have any proper subgroups:
since any subgroup must have an order that divides p, this can
only be 1 or p.
Example 6
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
yLagrange
yLagrange 2
yLagrange 3
yLagrange 4
yExample 6
yExample 6 contd
yConjugacy Class
yConjugacy Class 2
yConjugacy Class 3
yConjugacy Class 4
yExample 7
yExample 7 contd
Example
Find the left cosets of the proper subgroup H of the group G that
has Table 8 as its multiplication table.
Solution
The subgroup consists of the set of elements H = {I; A; B]. It
has order 3, which is a divisor of 6, the order of the group. H itself
provides the rst (left) coset:
IH = {II; IA; IB] = {I; A; B]:
We continue by choosing an element not already selected, C say,
and form
CH = {CI; CA; CB] = {C; D; E]:
These two cosets of H exhaust G, and are therefore the only
cosets, the index of H in G being equal to 2.
Example 6 contd
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
yLagrange
yLagrange 2
yLagrange 3
yLagrange 4
yExample 6
yExample 6 contd
yConjugacy Class
yConjugacy Class 2
yConjugacy Class 3
yConjugacy Class 4
yExample 7
yExample 7 contd
Note that it would not have mattered if we had taken D, say,
instead of I to form a rst coset
DH = {DI; DA; DB] = {D; E; C]
and then, from previously unselected elements, picked B, say:
BH = {BI; BA; BB] = {B; I; A]
The same two cosets would have resulted.
Conjugate and Classes
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
yLagrange
yLagrange 2
yLagrange 3
yLagrange 4
yExample 6
yExample 6 contd
yConjugacy Class
yConjugacy Class 2
yConjugacy Class 3
yConjugacy Class 4
yExample 7
yExample 7 contd
Denition of -: given X and Y belonging to G,
X - Y =Y = G
1
i
XG
i
, where G
i
is an (appropriate) element of
G.
Different pairs of elements X and Y will, in general, require
different group elements G
i
. Elements connected in this way are
said to be conjugates.
Conjugate and Classes 2
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
yLagrange
yLagrange 2
yLagrange 3
yLagrange 4
yExample 6
yExample 6 contd
yConjugacy Class
yConjugacy Class 2
yConjugacy Class 3
yConjugacy Class 4
yExample 7
yExample 7 contd
Proof:
(i) Reexivity: X - X, since X = I
1
XI and I belongs to the
group.
(ii) Symmetry: X - Y implies Y = G
1
i
XG
i
and therefore
X = .G
1
i
/YG
1
i
. Since G
i
belongs to G, so does G
1
i
,
and it follows that Y - X.
(iii) Transitivity: X - Y and Y - Z imply Y = G
1
i
XG
i
and
Z = G
1
j
YG
j
and therefore
Z = G
1
j
G
1
i
XG
i
G
j
= .G
i
G
j
/
1
X.G
i
G
j
/. Since G
i
and
G
j
belong to G so does G
i
G
j
, from which it follows that
X - Z.
These results establish conjugacy as an equivalence relation, and
hence show that it divides G into classes.
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
yLagrange
yLagrange 2
yLagrange 3
yLagrange 4
yExample 6
yExample 6 contd
yConjugacy Class
yConjugacy Class 2
yConjugacy Class 3
yConjugacy Class 4
yExample 7
yExample 7 contd
Immediate corollaries are:
(i) If Z is in the class containing I, then
Z = G
1
i
IG
i
= G
1
i
G
i
= I:
Thus, since any conjugate of I can be shown to be I, the
identity must be in a class by itself.
(ii) If X is in a class by itself, then Y = G
1
i
XG
i
must imply that
Y = X. But
X = G
i
G
1
i
XG
i
G
1
i
for any G
i
and so
X = G
i
.G
1
i
XG
i
/G
1
i
= G
i
YG
1
i
= G
i
XG
1
i
i.e. XG
i
= G
i
X for all G
i
.
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
yLagrange
yLagrange 2
yLagrange 3
yLagrange 4
yExample 6
yExample 6 contd
yConjugacy Class
yConjugacy Class 2
yConjugacy Class 3
yConjugacy Class 4
yExample 7
yExample 7 contd
Thus commutation with all elements of the group is a
necessary (and sufcient) condition for any particular group
element to be in a class by itself. In an Abelian group each
element is in a class by itself.
(iii) In any group G the set S of elements in classes by
themselves is an Abelian subgroup (known as the centre of
G). We have shown that I belongs to S, and so if, further,
XG
i
= G
i
X and YG
i
= G
i
Y for all G
i
belonging to G, then
(a) .XY /G
i
= XG
i
Y = G
i
.XY / i.e. the closure of S, and
(b) XG
i
= G
i
X implies X
1
G
i
= G
i
X
1
, i.e. the inverse
of X belongs to S.
Hence S is a group, and clearly Abelian.
Example 7
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
yLagrange
yLagrange 2
yLagrange 3
yLagrange 4
yExample 6
yExample 6 contd
yConjugacy Class
yConjugacy Class 2
yConjugacy Class 3
yConjugacy Class 4
yExample 7
yExample 7 contd
Example
Find the conjugacy classes of the group G having Table 8 as its
multiplication table.
Solution
I is in a class by itself. Consider next the results of forming
X
1
AX, as X runs through the elements of G.
I
1
AI = IA = A; A
1
AA = IA = A
B
1
AB = AI = A; C
1
AC = CE = B
D
1
AD = DC = B; E
1
AE = ED = B
Only A and B are generated. It is clear that {A; B] is one of the
conjugacy classes of G. This can be veried by forming all
elements X
1
BX; again only A and B appear.
Example 7 contd
Group Theory
Cyclic Group
Finite Groups
Non-Abelian Groups
Permutation Groups
Mapping
Subgroups
Congruence & Cosets
yLagrange
yLagrange 2
yLagrange 3
yLagrange 4
yExample 6
yExample 6 contd
yConjugacy Class
yConjugacy Class 2
yConjugacy Class 3
yConjugacy Class 4
yExample 7
yExample 7 contd
We now need to pick an element not in the two classes already
found. Suppose we pick C. We compute X
1
CX, as X runs
through the elements of G. The calculations give the following.
X : I A B C D E
X
1
CX : C E D C E D
Thus C, D, and E belong to the same class. The group is now
exhausted, and so the three conjugacy classes are
{I]; {A; B]; {C; D; E]:

5 Group Theory

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