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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Over the past century, manufacturing has considerable progress new machine tools, high performance cutting tools and modern manufacturing processes enables todays industries to make parts faster and better than before. Tool Engineering is a very vast field, in changing the scenario of the present world. Tool engineering can be classified further in to following main categories. Jigs and Fixtures for guiding the tool and holding the work piece. Gauges and Measuring instruments. Moulds and Dies for Plastic molding and Die-casting. Sheet metal press working tools. Forging Dies for Hot and Cold forging. Cutting tools such as drills, reamers, milling cutters, broaches and taps etc. The design, analysis and manufacturing of welding fixture for the components (turbine blade assembly) are to weld and get the required dimension by holding it on the fixture, by providing proper orientation and sufficient clamping. To increase the production and save the time, to maintain the critical dimension of the component and providing less effort to the operator. The welding operation is carried out by the Nd -YAG (Neodymium Doped Yttrium Aluminum Garnet) pulsed laser machine and welding is to be carried out on either side.
1.2
STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
Assembly processes are commonly used in the production of various consumer goods.
Product manufacturing can be decomposed into two steps. First, components are fabricated using different methods such as machining, casting, injection molding, or metal forming. Second, these components are assembled or joined together using welding, riveting, fastening, or other joining methods. Fabrication processes are not perfect. Because there will be variation in the component and fixture. As a result, the dimensional quality of the final product is influenced. This dissertation work focuses on variation analysis in turbine blade assemblies. The sources of
variations are: component variation, fixture variation, and joining tool variation (laser head).
DESIGN, ANALYSIS AND MANUFACTURING OF LASER WELDING FIXTURE FOR TURBINE BLADES ASSEMBLY
In turbine blades assembly, locators and clamps frequently coincide in the same position. In the remainder of this study, the word fixture will be used to refer, both locators and clamps interchangeably. To design a laser welding fixture for turbine blades assembly to check whether the welded blades are in required orientation or position. This assembled turbine blades are used in steam turbine. In general, fixture elements can be classified into locators and clamps. Locators establish the datum reference and provide deterministic locating. Clamps provide total restraint by holding the part in position under the application of external forces during the welding process.
1.3
that fixture-work piece warps during clamping and during processing are minimized provided that kinematic and total restraints are satisfied. The main objective of the project is to design a fixture, which is economical to manufacture and to minimize the loading, set-up and unloading time while doing laser welding of the assembly. It cannot be manufactured without fixture. Because, there is an inclination of 10 between each blades (10 blades) of one segment of the assembly. And another criticality of component is that, there should be minimum gap between the each blade, i.e. less than 50 microns. So that, to manufacture the turbine rotor assembly, fixture is needed. It can be used to weld the component as per dimension and the quality requirements. To achieve the customers requirement, the following areas of work are involved. 3-D model was developed according to specification and functional requirements. Make Conceptual design To economize the operation Faster rate of production the component
To achieve the dimensions and geometrical tolerance.
1.4
the project can be summarized as follows. Study of the component Conceptual design considering criticality of component and machine specifications. Solid modeling of the component
DEPARTMENT OF P.G.STUDIES, G T & T C, MYSORE 570 016.
DESIGN, ANALYSIS AND MANUFACTURING OF LASER WELDING FIXTURE FOR TURBINE BLADES ASSEMBLY
Time Analysis (minimum set-up time of operation) Fixture design for the component
Selection of fixture material Solid modeling of the fixture
1.5
METHODOLOGY
The basic concept involved in this method is to attain the objective of the project. A well
planned approach has been employed. The methodology consists of the following as mentioned here and in the subsequent chapters. Sample work piece Design brainstorming Design formation and selection Final design and Manufacturing Each of these phases includes several steps which are vital to a successful project completion. A brief description of the methodologies used is described in the following subheadings.
DESIGN, ANALYSIS AND MANUFACTURING OF LASER WELDING FIXTURE FOR TURBINE BLADES ASSEMBLY
DESIGN, ANALYSIS AND MANUFACTURING OF LASER WELDING FIXTURE FOR TURBINE BLADES ASSEMBLY
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION
A fixture is a device for locating, holding and supporting a work piece during a manufacturing operation. Fixtures are essential elements of production processes as they are required in most of the automated manufacturing, inspection, and assembly operations. Fixtures must correctly locate a work piece in a given orientation with respect to another component, as for instance in assembly or welding. Such location must be invariant in the sense that the devices must clamp and secure the work piece in that location for the particular processing operation. Fixtures are normally designed for a definite operation to process a specific work piece and are designed and manufactured individually. A locator is usually a fixed component of a fixture. It is used to establish and maintain the position of a part in the fixture by constraining the movement of the part. For work pieces of greater variability in shapes and surface conditions, a locator can also be adjustable. A clamp is a force-actuating mechanism of a fixture. The forces exerted by the clamps hold a part securely in the fixture against all other external forces. This covers the fundamental principles and physical phenomena governing laser-based fabrication/machining processes and potential applications. It provides a link between advanced materials and advanced processing/ manufacturing techniques. It connects physical science and engineering aspects together. Laser machining is an emerging area in various applications ranging from bulk machining in metal forming to micromachining and micro structuring in electronics and biomedical applications. The uniqueness of lasers lies in flexible manufacturing using lasers as assist in conventional machining techniques that has emerged into new fields like laser-assisted mechanical machining (LAM), laser-assisted chemical machining (LCM), laserassisted etching. Laser welding has evolved as an important industrial manufacturing process for joining a variety of metallic and nonmetallic materials. With the developments in the high-power laser technology over the past few decades, laser welding is now capable of joining thicker sections with higher processing speed and better weld quality. Due to the noncontact nature of laser processing, high degree of automation is possible providing economic advantages in the typical industrial environment.
DESIGN, ANALYSIS AND MANUFACTURING OF LASER WELDING FIXTURE FOR TURBINE BLADES ASSEMBLY
2.2
FIXTURE
The Fixtures are the economical means to produce repetitive type of works by
DESIGN, ANALYSIS AND MANUFACTURING OF LASER WELDING FIXTURE FOR TURBINE BLADES ASSEMBLY
quickly changed into different shape and sizes. They are taking advantages of both dedicated and modular fixtures that are especially beneficial in batch production. The further development of adjustable fixtures into modularized and standard designs may even enlarge the advantages of the flexibility and reconfigurability, and also the specified fixturing performance, although it could be more complicated and require the computerized planning, design, and verification. As CNC technique and machines were developed and widely applied improvement of the performance (motion accuracy, stiffness & controllability) of machines took as well as cutting tools, it is very common now to combine rough & finish machining in a single setup. This requires being efficient at the same time. In the other side, the requirements of some other functions such as guiding and graduating are no longer necessary in fixture design because of the high performance of the machine tools. It should be mentioned that although there are special & highly innovated flexible fixtures developed for specific applications, the mechanical fixtures, particularly modular & modularized adjustable fixtures are still the main forms of flexible fixtures used in real production today & in the near future. It should be also noticed that the above discussion is not only valid for machining fixtures, but also for the fixtures of other manufacturing processes, such as assembly, welding, inspection, straightening, etc.
DESIGN, ANALYSIS AND MANUFACTURING OF LASER WELDING FIXTURE FOR TURBINE BLADES ASSEMBLY
accurately onto to the work piece. Milling fixtures use setting pieces for correct positioning of milling cutters with respect to the work piece.
2.3
LOCATION [8]
The location refers to the establishment of a desired relationship between the work piece
and the Jig or Fixture. Correct location influences the accuracy of the finished products. The Jigs and the Fixtures are so designed that all possible movements of the component must be restricted. The determination of the locating points and clamping of the work piece serve to restrict the movements of the component in any direction, while setting it at the correct position relative to the jig. The locating points are determined by first finding out the possible degrees of freedom of the work piece, which are then restrained by suitable arrangements which serve as locators. The principles of determining locating points are described below.
As shown in the figure-2.1 the twelve degrees of freedom are related to the central axes of the work piece. Notice the six axial degrees of freedom and six radial degrees of freedom. The axial degrees of freedom permit straight-line movement in both directions along the three principle axes, shown as X, Y and Z. The radial degrees of freedom permit rotational movement, in both clockwise and counterclockwise radial directions, around the same three axes. The devices that restrict a work-piece's movement are the locators. The locators, therefore, must
DEPARTMENT OF P.G.STUDIES, G T & T C, MYSORE 570 016.
DESIGN, ANALYSIS AND MANUFACTURING OF LASER WELDING FIXTURE FOR TURBINE BLADES ASSEMBLY
be strong enough to maintain the position of the work piece and to resist the cutting forces. This fact also points out a crucial element in work-holder design: clamps must hold the work piece against the cutting forces.
Figure 2.2 Solid, adjustable, and equalizing supports locate a work piece from a flat surface. Solid supports are fixed-height locators. They precisely locate a surface in one axis. Though solid supports may be machined directly into a tool body, a more-economical method is using installed supports, such as rest buttons. Adjustable supports are variable-height locators. Like solid supports, they will also precisely locate a surface in one axis. These supports are used where work piece variations require adjustable support to suit different heights. These supports are used mainly for cast or forged work pieces that have uneven or irregular mounting surfaces. Equalizing supports are a form of adjustable support used when a compensating support is required. Although these supports can be fixed in position, in most cases equalizing supports float to accommodate work piece variations. As one side of the equalizing support is depressed, the other side raises the same amount to maintain part contact. In most cases adjustable and equalizing supports are used along with solid supports.
DESIGN, ANALYSIS AND MANUFACTURING OF LASER WELDING FIXTURE FOR TURBINE BLADES ASSEMBLY
Locating a work piece from its external edges is the most-common locating method. The bottom, or primary, locating surface is positioned on three supports, based on the geometry principle that three points are needed to fully define a plane. Two adjacent edges, usually perpendicular to each other, are then used to complete the location. The most-common way to locate a work piece from its external profile is the 3-2-1, or sixpoint, locational method. With this method, six individual locators reference and restrict the work piece. As shown in Figure 2.3, three locators, or supports, are placed under the work piece. The three locators are usually positioned on the primary locating surface. This restricts axial movement downward, along the -z axis (#6) and radially about the x (#7 and #8) and y (#9 and #10) axes. Together, the three locators restrict five degrees of freedom.
Figure 2.3 Three supports on the primary locating surface restrict five degrees of freedom. The next two locators are normally placed on the secondary locating surface, as shown in Figure 2.4 They restrict an additional three degrees of freedom by arresting the axial movement along the +y axis (#3) and the radial movement about the z (#11 and #12) axis.
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Figure 2.4 Adding two locators on a side restricts eight degrees of freedom. The final locator, shown in Figure 2.5, is positioned at the end of the part. It restricts the axial movement in one direction along the -x axis. Together, these six locators restrict a total of nine degrees of freedom. The remaining three degrees of freedom (#1, #4, and #5) will be restricted by the clamps.
Figure 2.5 Adding a final locator to another side restricts nine degrees of freedom, completing the 3-2-1 location. Although cylindrical rest buttons are the most-common way of locating a work piece from its external profile, there are also other devices used for this purpose. These devices include flatsided locators, vee locators, nest locators and adjustable locators.
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Locating from Internal Surfaces Locating a work piece from an internal diameter is the most-efficient form of location. The primary features used for this form of location are individual holes or hole patterns. Depending on the placement of the locators, either concentric, radial, or both-concentric-and-radial location are accomplished when locating an internal diameter. Plane location is also provided by the plate used to mount the locators. The two forms of locators used for internal location are locating pins and locating plugs. The only difference between these locators is their size: locating pins are used for smaller holes and locating plugs are used for larger holes. As shown in Figure 2.6, the plate under the work piece restricts one degree of freedom. It prevents any axial movement downward, along the -z (#6) axis. The center pin, acting in conjunction with the plate as a concentric locator, prevents any axial or radial movement along or about the x (#1, #2, #7, and #8) and y (#3, #4, #9, and #10) axes. Together, these two locators restrict nine degrees of freedom. The final locator, the pin in the outer hole, is the radial locator that restricts two degrees of freedom by arresting the radial movement around the z (#11 and #12) axis. Together, the locators restrict eleven degrees of freedom. The last degree of freedom, in the +z direction, will be restricted with a clamp.
Figure 2.6 Two locating pins mounted on a plate restrict eleven-out-of-twelve degrees of freedom.
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Positioning Locators: The primary function of any locator is to reference the work piece and to ensure repeatability. Unless the locators are properly positioned, however, these functions cannot be accomplished. When positioning locators, both relative to the work holder and to the work piece, there are a few basic points to keep in mind. Whenever practical, position the locators so they contact the work piece on machined surface. The machined surface not only provides repeatability but also usually offers a morestable form of location. The work piece itself determines the areas of the machined surface used for location. In some instances, the entire surface may be machined. In others, especially with castings, only selected areas are machined The best machined surfaces to use for location, when available, are machined holes. As previously noted, machined holes offer the most-complete location with a minimal number of locators. The next configuration that affords adequate repeatability is two machined surfaces forming a right angle. These characteristics are well suited for the six-point location method. Regardless of the type or condition of the surfaces used for location, however, the primary requirement in the selection of a locating surface is repeatability. To ensure repeatability, the next consideration in the positioning of locators is the spacing of the locators themselves. As a rule, space locators as far apart as practical. This is illustrated in Figure. Both work pieces shown here are located with the six-point locating method. The only difference lies in the spacing of the locators. In the part shown at (b), both locators on the backside are positioned close to each other. In the part at (2.7a), these same locators are spaced further apart. The part at (a) is properly located; the part at (2.7b) is not. Spacing the locators as far apart as practical compensates for irregularities in either the locators or the work piece. Its also affords maximum stability.
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Figure 2.7: For slight irregularities and maximum stability locators are placed as far apart as possible.
Figure 2.8: Positioning locators too close together will affect the location accuracy
The examples in Figure show the conditions that may occur when locators are placed too close together if the center positions of the locators are misaligned by .001". With the spacing shown at (2.8a), this condition has little effect on the location. But if the locating and spacing were changed to that shown at (2.8b), the .001" difference would have a substantial effect. Another problem with locators placed too close together is shown at (2.8c). Here, because the locators are too closely spaced, the part can wobble about the locators in the work holder.
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Figure 2.10: Fool proofing With some work pieces, however, more-creative approaches to fool proofing must be taken as shown in the figure. Fool proofing the locating prevents improper work piece loading.
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2.4
CLAMPING [13]
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Strength
The clamping system should be capable of holding the work piece securely against the forces developed during the operation. The clamping force should not dent or damaged the work piece with excessive pressure. For clamping weak or fragile work piece, the clamping force should be distributed over a wider area of the work piece. While clamping soft work pieces, clamps should be fitted with pads of softer materials, such as nylon or fiber to prevent damage and denting of the work piece.
Productivity
Clamping time should be minimized by using hands knobs, Tommy bars, knurled screws, hand wheels and handles, so that the clamp can be tightened or loosened manually without using spanners, as a spanner further adds motions of picking, aligning, and laying it down.
Operator fatigue
Operator fatigue should be taken into account. If a considerable number of clamps are to be tightened and loosened repeatedly, it is better to use pneumatic or hydraulic clamping which, in addition to reducing operator fatigue, also saves clamping time. Power clamping facilities tightening or loosening of many clamps simultaneously.
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HYDRAULIC CLAMPING FIXTURES Fixtures which are clamped by hydraulic cylinders are called hydraulic clamping fixtures.
If higher rate of production is required hydraulic clamping fixtures are selected. Hydraulic fixtures are costlier than manual clamping fixtures. Hydraulic clamping fixtures can be done for any component. Accuracy is not operator dependent. Component of particular operation requires higher cutting force with more depth of cut.
PNEUMATIC CLAMPING FIXTURES Fixtures which are clamped by pneumatic cylinders are called pneumatic clamping fixtures. If higher rate of production is required with minimum cost, pneumatic clamping fixtures are selected. Pneumatic fixtures are more expensive than manual clamping fixtures but cheaper than hydraulic fixtures. Pneumatic clamping fixture can be done for any component which is having less cutting loads. The compressed air used for machine application can be used for cylinder actuation.
DEPARTMENT OF P.G.STUDIES, G T & T C, MYSORE 570 016.
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Essential features required for hydraulic fixtures: Air compressor. Pneumatic elements looping Assembly
Setting Block
The setting block as shown in the figure, is located relative to the fixture location system and retained in position by screws; it has two hardened setting faces, so that the table can be positioned both horizontally and vertically (note that the table is located from one side of the cutter only). The table setting is done with a 0.25 mm feeler between the cutter and the setting face so that the block will not be damaged by the cutter during machining. The setting block is positioned so that the cutter is between the vertical face of the block and the operator during setting; this arrangement gives maximum convenience for the operator during setting.
Tenons:
The two tenons (as shown in the figure) are made from case hardened steel and are located on the underside of the fixture base; these two tenons sit in one of the tee slots that run along the length of the machine table so that the fixture is located relative to the table feed; the two tenons should be as far apart as possible, to produce maximum accuracy. The fixture is bolted to the table by two or four tee bolts that are placed in the tee slots (these bolts are not called up as part of the fixture).
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2.5
2.5.1 INTRODUCTION
worlds first laser was demonstrated by Maiman using a ruby crystal. It is essentially a coherent, convergent, and monochromatic beam of electromagnetic radiation with wavelength ranging from ultraviolet to infrared. Lasers have now found applications in almost every field of engineering, medicine, electronics, etc., where one or more properties of the laser radiation are important. In order to realize the applicability and capability of a laser radiation in any application, it is necessary to understand the basic operation mechanism and properties of laser radiation. These aspects of laser radiations along with the important industrial laser types are briefly discussed in this chapter.
Fig. 2.12 Schematic of the oscillations of electric (E) and magnetic (H) field vectors associated with plane electromagnetic wave
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2.5.4.1 SOLID-STATE LASERS In solid-state lasers, active medium consists of a small percentage of impurity ions doped in a solid host material. The first practical solid-state laser was the ruby laser developed by Maimam in 1960. Large numbers of lasers such as Nd: YAG, Nd: glass, alexandrite, and Ti: Sapphires are now available in this class. Among these, Nd: YAG laser is the most commonly used one in the laser machining applications. Hence, operating principles of Nd: YAG laser are explained here. 2.5.4.2 Nd: YAG LASER Nd: YAG laser consists of crystalline YAG with a chemical formula Y3Al5O12 as a host material. The Nd3+ ions substitute yttrium ion sites in the lattice with a maximum doping level
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of around 2%. This is a typical four-level energy laser system earlier illustrated. Such systems offer significant advantages such as ease of achieving population inversions. Hence, simple designs of flash lamps with modest amount of pumping energy are sufficient to achieve the efficient population inversions. The energy levels involved in the population inversion and the laser transitions are shown in Fig. 2.13. Laser transitions take place between the 4F3/2 level and the 4I11/2 level.
Figure 2.13: Schematic of the energy levels of neodymium ion showing the levels involved in population inversion (pumping) and laser transitions. Due to splitting of initial and final energy levels, several lasing wavelengths are possible, 1.064 m being the strongest one. The output of the Nd: YAG laser can be continuous, pulsed, or Qswitched. The light source for pumping depends on the absorption characteristics of the crystal. For continuous operation the laser is excited by continuous krypton-filled or xenon-filled arc lamps or semiconductor diode lasers. Krypton lamps are efficient pumping sources for continuous Nd: YAG laser because the emission lines from Krypton lamps agrees better with absorption lines in Nd: YAG. For pulsed operation, flash lamps are generally used. If the pulses of relatively large-pulse energy are desired, the laser is excited by a flash lamp, which gives pulses at relatively low pulse repetition rates. Nd: YAG laser is also available in frequencydoubled mode in which the output of the laser is in the green portion of the visible spectrum at
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DESIGN, ANALYSIS AND MANUFACTURING OF LASER WELDING FIXTURE FOR TURBINE BLADES ASSEMBLY
532 nm. In addition to frequency doubled operation, the laser is also available in frequencytripled (355 nm) and frequency-quadrupled (266 nm) modes.
Main applications per technologies are: CO2 Laser Deep welding Cutting Marking Nd-YAG Laser High precision welding High precision cutting
Marking Drilling
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2.6
LASER WELDING
Laser welding has evolved as an important industrial manufacturing process for joining a
2.6.1 INTRODUCTION
variety of metallic and nonmetallic materials. With the developments in the high-power laser technology over the past few decades, laser welding is now capable of joining thicker sections with higher processing speed and better weld quality. Due to the noncontact nature of laser processing, high degree of automation is possible providing economic advantages in the typical industrial environment. Even though, laser welding seems to be a simpler process, it presents significant challenges to produce defect-free welds at high speed and under reproducible conditions. This requires a strong understanding of the underlying concepts of laser material interactions in the regime of laser welding conditions. Since extensive literature is published on the topic of laser welding in dedicated books, book chapters, and journals, this chapter is intended to present only brief discussions on important aspects of laser welding process.
Figure 2.14
Schematic of the cross sections of (a) conduction and (b) deep penetration laser welding showing various effects. 27
DESIGN, ANALYSIS AND MANUFACTURING OF LASER WELDING FIXTURE FOR TURBINE BLADES ASSEMBLY
In this approach the energy transfer into the depth of the material takes place by conduction (Fig. 2.14a). The second and the most important approach referred as deep penetration welding corresponds to the laser processing conditions which create a keyhole in the weld pool. Generally, the transition from the conduction mode to the deep penetration welding is associated with the increase in laser power intensity or irradiation time such that surface vaporization at the molten weld pool begins The resulting evaporation-induced recoil pressure forms a small depression in the weld pool which subsequently develops into a keyhole by the upward displacement of molten material sideways along the keyhole walls (Fig. 2.14b). The subsequent ionization of the vapor results in the formation of the plasma plume. The laser energy entering the keyhole wall is determined by the attenuation due to absorption of laser energy in the plasma plume. Within a keyhole, the laser energy is reflected repeatedly (multiple reflection) with efficient Fresnel absorption of energy at the keyhole walls. Thus, the keyhole plays an important role in transferring and distributing the laser energy deep into the material.
The surface vaporization continues at the keyhole wall during laser welding to maintain the cavity. The vaporized materials act against the surface tension to keep the keyhole open. The melt accelerated upward flows continuously out of the cavity. Figure 2.15 presents the schematic geometry of deep penetration laser welding.
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Figure 2.16: Flowchart of various absorption mechanisms during deep penetration laser welding.
Various mechanisms of energy absorption during laser welding process are presented in Fig. 2.16 Under dynamic condition such as a moving laser beam, the welding speed is determined by the stability of the keyhole. Stable welding conditions correspond to the speed at which the keyhole speed achieves steady state. The symmetry of the keyhole is also influenced by the welding speed. At low welding speed, the keyhole may be approximated by the rotational symmetry, whereas at high welding speed, the keyhole profile differs significantly at the front and back wall.
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Figure 2.17: Schematic representation of laser welding Welding requires high energy density that can be achieved by working at the focal poit of the optical system. The absorption coefficient of the laser beam by the material depends of: Material nature 9 melting nature (melting temperatures, surface status)
Wave length of the laser source (CO2 or Nd:YAG technology) 2.6.4 SOME SPECIFIC CHARACTORISTICS OF THE PROCESS
2.6.4.1 THE KEY HOLE The key hole is a cavity filed with very high temperature ionized metal vapors, which is formed at the beam impact point due to the effect of the high energy densities. The key hole is in equilibrium due to the effect of evaporation of the metal, the pressure of the vapors and the surface tension. The keyhole is created by means of the following process as shown in figure 2.18 Heating of a localized zone by the focused processed beam Creation of molten pool
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Figure 2.18: Specific characteristic of process This keyhole, which is characteristic of welding with high energy density, plays a very important role in laser welding as it allows direct transfer of the energy to the core of the material. 2.6.4.2 THE PLASMA When the material is irradiated with sufficiently larger laser intensity (Iv), significant surface evaporation takes place as explained in the previous sections. Once the vaporization is initiated, the interactions between the resulting vapor and the incident laser beam become important in determining the overall effect of the laser irradiation on the material. One of the most important interactions is the ionization of vapor. The highly ionized vapor is termed as plasma. The keyhole is created along with plasma at the surface of the molten pool. This plasma, made up of ionized vapors, is highly absorbent wit h regard to the CO2 laser beam (absorbing up to 60% of the incident energy). The absorbed energy is the n transmitted to the surrounding media and constitutes a secondary source of heating.
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Figure 2.19: Plasma In the YAG laser, the plasma is much more absorbent and has less effect on the beam. The plasma constitutes a very high temperature medium that emits radiation throughout the whole spectrum: ultra violet and infrared. The behavior of the plasma depends to a great extent on the energy density and on the gas blanket.
Figure 2.20: Effect of Plasma bead morphology The effect of the plasma on the bead morphology varies according to the incident energy, resulting in widening of the upper section of the bead (nail head effect) Weld metal zone A: due to the action of the plasma (with up to 60% of the beam absorbed).
Molten zone B: due to the action of the keyhole (remaining part of the incident beam excluding the reflecting beam). Total weld metal zone = weld metal zone A + weld metal zone B
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2.7
2.8
Good control of the process, excellent reproducibility, increased quality. No filler required. Weld joint precision and beam fineness allowing, for example, welding of groove or in areas that are inaccessible when using conventional techniques. Low energy input and low temperature increase of the work piece put to good use in welding of compact electronic units. Only slight deformations allowing the use of light clamping tools. Little or no reworking or resurfacing after welding so that finished parts are obtained. Welding in one pass, eliminating tedious preparatory work (beveling) and work piece tooling operations. Short cycle times thanks to high welding speeds No or little spatter.
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high productivity.
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CHAPTER 3
: :
Steam Turbine Blade Assembly One Set of Turbine blade rotor (it consists of 30 Nos. of 10 Turbine blade assembly Segment)
: :
TRIVENI Engineering and Industries Ltd., Bangalore. X20Cr13 as DIN Standard as Equivalent Material to AISI 420
Pre-machined, separate elements of turbine blade assembly, Like female spacer, blade profile, spacer and male spacer.
Machining Operation
Laser welding
The figure 3.1 shows the working drawing of component supplied by customer.
3.2
COMPONENT DESCRIPTION
In power plants, Steam turbine blades are used which are critical components. These
blades convert the linear motion of steam at high temperature and high-pressure flowing down a pressure gradient into a rotary motion of the turbine shaft and these blades are subjected to very high centrifugal and bending forces during operation. These turbine blades are made up of Stainless and heat resisting steels: DIN: X20Cr13, or AISI 420.
3.3
CRITICALITY OF COMPONENT
Turbine rotor assembly cannot be manufactured without fixture. Because, there is an
inclination of 10 between each blades (10 blades) of one segment of the assembly. And another criticality of component is that, there should be minimum gap between the each blade, i.e. less than 50 microns. So that, to manufacture the turbine rotor assembly, fixture is needed. It can be
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used to weld the component as per dimension and the quality requirements. After designing a fixture, turbine blades are positioned appropriately and gap between the elements are also achieved.
Min. Max.
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Table 3.3: Physical properties PHYSICAL PROPERTIES Density Thermal expansion coefficient Thermal conductivity Specific heat Electrical resistivity Poissons ratio Magnetic permeability - 400 C 200C 7.80 kg/dm3 10.3 x10-6/C 24.9 Wm-1K-1 460 JKg-1K-1 0.550 m 0.24 2000C -
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3.6
COMPONENT MODEL
Front View
Isometric View
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3.7
REQUIREMENT OF CUSTOMER
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3.8
3.9
CONCEPTUAL DESIGN
The conceptual design is the first step for any given design task. The conceptual design is comprised of the initial requirements given to the designer in order to begin formulating a design. The most common information provided is the intended function. This is one of the single most important pieces of information in conceptual design. Drawn from the function are the specifics of potential shape, material requirements, fabrication methods, and others. Additional information that might be provided to a designer is the interaction information, tolerances, environmental requirements, and relative dimensions. Using this information a conceptual design is created. Important to the conceptual design specifically for assemblies is the function of the part and its correlation to the function of the whole. In an assembly a part is no longer a standalone object, it must fulfill its individual role as well as its role as part of the assembly. The information on how the assemblies are connected physically is important as well. Indexing of this information is very important since it contains information that cannot be directly taken from the final work piece part. Within this proposed system text will be used to describe most of the conceptual information.
The conceptual designs for fixture is based on the critical dimensions of the component, and the idea obtained by the detailed study of the component, existing method of manufacturing and existing fixtures if any, the literature survey gives an idea about new method of fixture design. The new concept that can be obtained for this component manufacturing is to complete with two setups of operation that is first setting, second setting, and third setting of laser welding. Figure shows the conceptual design of fixture.
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Locating parts such as nesting surface, pins and pads that required a high hardness and are
finish ground after heat treatment are made of 20MnCr5.
Surface that are exposed to light wear only can be case hardened by cyaniding and do not
require subsequent grinding unless a high degree of accuracy is required.
Dowel pin are made of 20MnCr5, hardened to 60 HRC. Clamping plate made of also EN 8 is case hardened medium carbon steel. 3.9.2 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN OF WELDING FIXTURE ASSEMBLY
Support block Force Nylon cap clamping plate Component
Fixture plate
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CHAPTER 4
4.2
The following are the essential factors, which must be considered in designing a fixture:
DESIGN, ANALYSIS AND MANUFACTURING OF LASER WELDING FIXTURE FOR TURBINE BLADES ASSEMBLY
Operating a lever or a knurled knob should effect the clamping. The hexagonal headed nuts or bolts should be avoided as far as practicable to eliminate the use of spanners.
The clamps should be so arranged on the work to perform as many operations as possible in one setting.
Study clearance between fixture and component. It is necessary to leave sufficient clearance between fixture body and the component to accommodate variable sizes of work piece, which are manufactured either by milled or WEDM. Study of the fool-proofing arrangements. It means the designing of Fixture with such devices so as to make it impossible for an operator to insert a component into a fixture in any position. Study the fixtures are designed to eject heavy work pieces mechanically when it is unclamped. This saves time and labor of operator. Wedges accomplish the ejection of components, spring loaded or cam-actuated plungers. Study of swarf removal arrangement. The removal of chips from fixtures can be accomplished by the following methods:
By designing the shape of the fixture elements to enable the chips to fall out by gravity. By undercutting the corners to clear the work. By using raised supports or buttons for location. By maintaining marginal clearance between the fixture body and the component.
To study base or frame construction. The body and base of fixtures are manufactured by the following methods: Turning Machining Welding and Grinding.
Study of rigidity and vibration problems. Study of safety devices. Study of the methods of manufacture of fixtures.
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4.3
4.4
DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS
Fixture design consists of a number of distinct activities: fixture planning, fixture layout
design, fixture element design, and fixture body design. They are listed in Figure 4.1 in their natural sequence, although they may be developed in parallel and not necessarily as a series of isolated activities in actual execution. Fixture design deals with the establishment of the basic fixture concepts: Fixture layout is an embodiment of the concepts in the form of a spatial configuration of the fixture, Fixture element design is concerned with the concrete details of the locators, clamps and supports, Fixture body design produces a structure combining the fixture elements in the desired spatial relationship with the machine tool.
4.5
DESIGN PLANNING
Fixture planning is to conceptualize a basic fixture configuration through analyzing all the
available information regarding the material and geometry of the work piece, operations required, processing equipment for the operations, and the operator. The following outputs are included in the fixture plan: Fixture type and complexity Number of work pieces per fixture Orientation of work piece within fixture Locating datum faces Clamping surfaces and Support surfaces.
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Figure 4.1: various aspects of fixture design. Generation of fixture layout is to represent the fixture concepts in a physical form. The following outputs are included in the fixture layout: Positions of locators Positions of clamps Positions of supports, if any Type of locators Type of clamps Type of supports Clamping forces and sequence
Fixture element design is either to detail the design drawings committed on paper or to create the solid models in a CAD system of the practical embodiment of the conceptual locators, clamps and supports. It is possible to use standard designs or proprietary components. The following outputs are included in the fixture element design: Detailed design of locators Detailed design of clamps Detailed design of supports, if any
Fixture body design is to produce a rigid structure carrying all the individual fixture elements in their proper places.
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4.5.1.1 Stage one deal with information gathering and analysis. These include product analysis such as the study of design specifications, process planning, examining the processing equipment and considering operator safety and ease of use. In this stage, all the critical dimensions and feasible datum areas are examined in detail.
4.5.1.2 Stage Two involves the consideration of clamping and locating schemes. A clamping scheme is devised in such a way that it will not interfere with the laser head or welding area and are fully compatible with proposed locating surfaces or areas. The locating scheme, using standard elements such as pins is designed to be consistent with clamping and tool-guiding arrangements.
4.5.1.3 Stage Three is the design of the structure of the fixture body frame. This is usually built around the work piece as a single element which links all the other elements used for locating, clamping tool-guiding, etc. into an integral frame work.
4.5.1.4 Stage four this phase consists of the examination of all accumulated design concepts and their possible change because of operators considerations, which consist of the element of the time fatigue and safety. 4.5.1.5 Stage Five this phase is the evaluation of the tentative design for lowest cost per part, which includes fixture design and fabrication costs of fixture. Operation, optimization and all other costs that are applicable wholly or impart to the design. The above procedures are quite general and can be modified depending on the relative importance of the various elements in providing for the required accuracy of the work piece to be located and secured into the fixturing device. With the popular adaptation of modular fixturing elements, the fixture body frame is usually a standard block with fixed arrays of locating and fixing holes or slots.
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4.6
DESIGN CRITERIA
The following design criteria must be observed during the procedure of fixture design: Design specifications Factory standards Ease of use and safety Economy
4.7
operational fixture has to satisfy several requirements to fully perform its functions as a work holding device. The following constraints must be observed while designing a viable fixture:
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4.8
4.8.2 SIMPLICITY
Simplicity is essential and necessary in tool design. Detail drawing should be made as simple and easy as possible. Every detail should be considered for possible saving of material and time. A basic and simple design minimizes the tool cost. Pre-formed materials: their use can greatly reduce tooling cost by eliminating many operations like use of standard structural sections, pre-machined brackets, tooling plate and precision ground flat stock should be specified.
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4.9
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tm + th Where tm is the actual machining time and th is the setting up and handling time, Hence, the production rate is given by:
The use of fixtures has twofold benefits. It eliminates individual marking; positioning and frequent checking before machining operation starts, thereby resulting in considerable saving in setup time. In addition, the usage of fixture devices saves labours, through simplifying the locating and clamping tasks and makes possible the replacement of skilled workforce with semi-skilled labour, hence effecting substantial saving in labour cost which also translates into enhanced production rate.
Furthermore, the use of well-structured fixtures with higher locating and clamping rigidity would allow for increase in welding speeds and feeds, thereby reducing tm, hence improving production rate. Besides improving the productivity in terms of the rate of production, there are also other benefits accrued through the use of fixtures. They are: Increases machining accuracy because of precise location with fixtures, Decreases expenditure on quality control of machined parts as fixtures facilitate uniform quality in manufacturing, widens the technology capacity of machine tools and increases the versatility of machining operations to be performed, Either fully or partly automates the machine tool.
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Relief
Pin locator
M8 screw hole
Locators for 2nd Setting
Material 20MnCr5
Hardness 50 54 HRC
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View - 1
View - 2
This clamp, locates the component assembly first and then acts clamping.
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Material EN 8
Hardness 40 54 HRC
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= 128.6 kgf/mm2 In this design, force acting on the component is compressive in nature, hence need to know the deformation due to direct load on the component by using the relations.
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Where
= total deformation of the member carrying the axial load F = direct axial load L = original total length of the member E = modulus of elasticity of the material A = cross-sectional area of the member
Deformation
The deformation induse in component is 0.000001607 mm, which is negligible. From the above results, it is concluded that clamping force will not give any distortion to component and fixture. because No Physical contact of between tool and job No Mechanical forces will develop Very low Heat affected zone ( less than 0.5mm )
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Minimum thermal distortion Clamping is only to hold the turbine blade assembly in proper position Rapid cooling Rapid welding time, i.e. 6 mili second / pulse.
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Fig. 4.14 Variation of calculated freezing (solidification) rate with fractional melt depth during
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Laser irradiation of nickel. The calculations were performed for an initial melt depth of 0.025 mm Using three absorbed laser power densities (Q0, W/cm2).
4.14.2
BEAM SHAPES
It was assumed that the large area of the material was irradiated uniformly with the laser
beam. This corresponds to the constant laser power density at all the points on the irradiated surface. However, the laser power density (intensity) can be distributed in several distinct shapes. The most common in the laser material processing is the Gaussian distribution of energy.
4.14.3
PULSE SHAPES
The temperature distribution during laser irradiation can be greatly influenced by the
temporal variation of laser beam intensity. The continuous wave (CW) laser beams with constant laser intensity with time are easiest to define in the thermal model. The complexity in the thermal analysis arises due to pulsed operation of laser. In such analysis, it is important to define the temporal shape of the pulse. Various single-pulse shapes such as rectangular pulse, triangular pulse, and smooth pulse are shown in Fig. 4.15. Rectangular pulses are generally characterized by the width of the pulse; whereas triangular and smooth pulses are characterized by the width at full width half maxima (FWHM). For the same width (for rectangular pulse) or width at FWHM (for triangular or smooth pulses), the rectangular pulses generally give higher temperature rise compared to triangular and smooth pulses. During multipulse operation, temperature of the material increases during each pulse followed by cooling during the time between the adjacent pulses. Since the cooling is not complete during the short duration between the pulses, the initial temperature during heating with the subsequent pulses is always higher than that during heating with preceding pulses. This results in the higher temperature during heating with subsequent pulses. Thus, the pulsed heating of the material is associated with temperature fluctuations (heating and cooling) during each pulse and time interval following the pulse (time between the adjacent pulses). This is schematically shown in Fig. 4.16. The pulsed output of the laser may be approximated by the constant average output such that thermal analysis yields the continuous increase in temperature during heating (dashed curve in Fig. 4.16b).
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Fig. 4.15 Various single-pulse shapes showing temporal variation of the intensity: (a) rectangular pulse, (b) smooth pulse, and (c) triangular pulse
Fig. 4.16 Schematic of temporal evolution of surface temperature during (a) single pulse and (b) multipulse laser irradiation of material (dotted curve indicate the average temperature)
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important. The theory of moving sources of heat was first advanced by Rosenthal (1946). The schematic of the model geometry for heating with moving point source is presented in Figure 4.17 for a point heating source moving with a constant velocity (v) in the x-direction, with point source as origin
Fig. 4.17 Schematic of the (a) heating model geometry with a moving point source of heat, and (b) typical temperature distribution (isotherms) in the xz plane through the point source
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characteristics as hardness, strength, toughness, wear resistance, and resistance to heat softening, before optimum performance can be realized. Other important factors requiring due consideration in selection of proper tool steel are harden ability, permissible distortion during heat-treatment and machinability. Chemical composition: C-0.7 to 0.8, Si-0.25 to 0.5, Mn-0.6 to 0.8, Cr-0.3 to 0.4, P-max 0.03%, S-max 0.03%, balance Fe
i.
SL NO
1 2
Cr %
Mn %
0.2-0.4 0.260.64
Mo %
Si %
0.7 0.120.38
P(max) S(max) Fe % % %
0.3 0.4 0.4 0.0150.04 Balance Balance
IS CODE
IS: 1570 IS: 4431
3 4 5
1.0
Balance
IS: 1570
ii.
GENERAL TOLERANCE FOR METRIC DIMENSIONS IS: 2102 0.5 to6 6 to30 30 to 120 to 315 to Nominal Above 120 315 1000 dimensions Up to & in mm including 0.02 Tolerance in mm 0.05 0.2 0.5 0.8
1000 to
2000
1.2
DESIGN, ANALYSIS AND MANUFACTURING OF LASER WELDING FIXTURE FOR TURBINE BLADES ASSEMBLY
The size of locating face should be greater than the diameter or width o the locating
element.
If there are through holes on the supporting faces that require machining in that setup,
then the part must be elevated to avoid collision of the tool with the base plate.
The height of the locating element should not be greater than the height of the part to
avoid collision with the tool.
Parts of the same geometric design but with the difference specifications usually require
distinct processing steps and sequences. Here different locating and holding requirements for fixturing.
The closer the fixture component is placed to a machined feature, the more the
machining operation is restricted.
The selection of primary locating surface cannot simply be based on part geometry. The
configurations of the machine tool and the positional and orientation tolerances of the geometric features to be machined are important considerations.
The special orientation of the part cannot be completely determined by the primary
locating surfaces, it serves only as a stop for repetitive and accurate positioning. A fixture component is selected primarily based on the following factors. Form of the part to be supported, work piece geometry Dimensional ratio of the part surfaces to the surfaces of the fixture component. Degrees of freedom to be limited.
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Manufacturing refers to the processes of converting the raw materials into useful products. This is normally accomplished by carrying out a set of activities such as product design, selection of raw material, and materials processing. There exist a large number of conventional manufacturing processes which are used for the manufacturing of common products. However, the manufacturing engineering is a dynamic field marked with continuous advancement in the traditional approaches and the incorporation of novel approaches for manufacturing advanced products. Not all manufacturing processes can produce a product with equal ease, quality, and economy. Each manufacturing process is generally characterized by some advantages and limitation over the other processes. On the same lines, manufacturing using lasers may offer extraordinary benefits in some cases or may be a total failure in others. In order to keep the manufacturing of materials using lasers in the correct context, this chapter intends to give a brief overview of the various manufacturing processes.
5.2
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
There are a large number of manufacturing processes currently used in industries. It is
convenient to discuss the manufacturing processes by grouping them into certain classes based on some characteristic common features. The manufacturing processes can be classified in various ways based on factors such as geometry of work piece, temperature of the work piece, and type of deformations: 1. Primary and secondary manufacturing processes: Primary manufacturing processes involve the initial conversion of the raw materials into the semifinal product stage. The output of primary manufacturing processes is then subjected to secondary manufacturing processes to obtain the final or finished product geometry. Various primary manufacturing processes include casting, forging, rolling, extrusion, etc., whereas secondary manufacturing processes involve various machining and forming processes. 2. Hot working and cold working processes: When the manufacturing process is carried out at temperatures above the re-crystallization temperature of the material, it is referred to as the hot working process, whereas below the re-crystallization temperature it is referred to as the cold working process. Hot working processes are generally carried out at elevated temperatures. For
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example, rolling of steel may be a hot working (hot rolling) or cold working (cold rolling) process. 3. Metal forming and metal removal processes: Metal forming processes involve the manufacturing of a product by deforming the raw material, whereas metal removal processes, as the name suggests, involves the removal of material from the work piece to obtain the desired shapes. Various rolling, forging, and bending operations can be regarded as metal forming processes. Material removal processes include various machining operations.
5.3
which the conventional machining proves unsatisfactory both in terms of economics and achievable machining quality. Most of these needs come from the rapid technological advancement in the areas of materials development for advanced applications in aerospace, automotive, and nuclear power industries. Increasing development and utilization of super-hard, high-strength, high-temperature, and high-performance materials in these applications is increasingly demanding complex machining requirements for such difficult-to-machine materials. Some of these difficult-to-machine materials are titanium, nimonics, metal matrix composites, advanced ceramics, and aluminides. Conventional machining is limited mainly due to unavailability of ultrahard tool material for economical machining of these difficult- tomachine materials. In most of the cases, nontraditional machining is the most economical and effective way of machining these materials. Nontraditional machining processes are generally considered to be manufacturing processes that use common energy forms in new ways or that applies new forms of energy. Nontraditional machining processes are categorized based on the form of energy employed such as mechanical, electrical, thermal, and chemical.
5.4
LASERS IN MANUFACTURING
Lasers are finding continuously increasing utilization in the manufacturing processes. The
applications of lasers have been demonstrated in many casting, forming, joining, and machining processes. Some of these processes are still in the stage of development. Currently, there are several laser-based manufacturing processes which are commonly used for specific applications. This section outlines these laser-based manufacturing processes. Lasers have been extensively used for joining (welding and soldering) of variety of materials. The various laser welding processes involve spot welding, seam welding, and deep penetration welding. Laser welding generally involve the formation of keyhole by the surface
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vaporization of material (Fig. 5.1). This keyhole facilitates the absorption of light energy and distribution of heat such that melting of the work pieces at the joint results in the formation of weld. The laser welding offer significant advantages over the conventional welding such as high welding speed, possibility of dissimilar welding, welding of difficult-to-weld materials, microwelding, precision welding of components, narrow heat affected zone (HAZ), etc. There exist some specialized applications (such as inside welding, welding of devices, etc.) where conventional welding may not produce quality welds. Such applications are well handled with laser welding processes. Laser welding is particularly economical for high production volumes compared to other competent welding processes. There may be some limitations on the thickness of the work pieces and the speed of laser welding. The selection of laser welding for a given application must be derived from the welding capabilities of the various laser sources, overall economics of the manufacturing, and the quality of the welds produced.
The flexibility of lasers in the manufacturing processes is due to ability of the lasers to sequentially weld and machine (cutting, drilling, etc.) by optimizing the laser processing parameters. Raw material is transferred into the finished tool in this activity generally, during fabrication. Each part of the tool is manufactured by referring to their respective design and drawing. Before taking up fabrication, the tool drawings are studied and a process plan for each part is prepared. Attention is bestowed on fabric ability during design stage itself. Tolerance and hardness required and related aspects are selected for implementation.
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During tool manufacturing, following procedure is followed. 1. Process planning 2. Manufacturing. The product design is aimed at determining the size and shape of product that will give satisfactory performance for an adequate life whereas the process design function includes developing methods of manufacturing the product so that it can be produced at competitive price.
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5.5
machining purpose; finishing operation is carried out on CNC machines. The machines used for fixture manufacturing is as follows 1. Conventional milling machines 2. Conventional lathe machines 3. Radial drilling machine 4. Jig boring machine 5. Tool and cutter grinder 6. Cylindrical grinding machine 7. Surface grinding machine and 8. Arc welding machine etc.,
5.6
INSPECTION
5.7
component is true to the geometry and dimensions specified by the customer, following are trial and prove out procedure. 1. Purpose: this procedure defines the method for proving fixture. 2. Responsibility: tool room is responsible for performing trials for the purpose of prove-out, process planning and approval process (PPAP) as per this guideline. Tool engineer is responsible for approving tool trials conducted as per procedure. 3. Process: every tool will be tried to meet the objectives stated below. Trials will be conducted in three stages. a) Physical check: each fixture meets construction norms of tool room
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b) Functional check: parts machined in each fixture is in sequence, do not contain any errors due to construction issues. c) Quality performance check: finished parts that have undergone all fixture sequence comply with drawing and design intent. The above procedure is carried for laser welding fixture and found satisfactory.
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CHAPTER
COST ESTIMATION
6.1 INTRODUCTION [15]
It is an art of finding the cost which is likely to be incurred for manufacturing of an article, before it is actually manufactured. The direct and simplest way to determine the tool cost design is to add the total material cost and labour required to fabricate the tool. This must be carefully done not to forget any part or operation and list the material in or the time separate part list. Then use a worksheet; list each part and calculate material and labour cost. The time for each machining includes setup and break downs as well as actual machining the final cost is got by adding the cost of designing the tool. The next step is to calculate the number of parts per hour the tool will produce. The simplest method is to divide one hour by the simple part time or the time it takes to load the machine and unload each part. Cost estimation is the process of calculating the approximate total cost involved in producing a component (tool) right from raw material purchase to end stage. It will also include profit and the overhead charges. Cost estimation is carried out to predict the cost of a tool to be built before it is actually manufactured. The tool costs can be estimated in different ways, either on the data of production planning or based on a forecast procedure. The first procedure assigns costs to each working step and to the used material. The high accuracy of this procedure has some disadvantages and difficulties. The method is time consuming and requires from the accountant detailed knowledge of working hours and costs in tool making. Besides this it can be applied only after the tool design has been finalized. In the present case, it is decided to estimate the tool cost accurately and hence this method is followed. The total cost of the tool includes following costs: 1. Material cost 2. Machining cost 3. Heat treatment cost 4. Design charges 5. Tryout cost
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6.2
= = =
Table 6.1: Market cost of material per Kg SI.NO Material 1 Mild steel (St-42) No. of Kgs required 20 X 2 Market price Per Kg in Rs. 42.0 Total cost in Rs. 1680.00
Table 6.2: Cost of standard item SI.NO Description 1 2 4 5 Std.Pneumatic cylinder Dowel pins (8and 6) Washers/kg Fasteners Total numbers 1 4 Total cost in (Rs) 5000.00 500.00 95.00 2050.00 Total cost of standard item = Rs 7645.00
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6.3
Machining cost
= = =
Total Machining cost = Machining cost +welding charges + Heat treatment cost + Inspection charges = 29375+50+ 500 + 1000 = Rs. 30925.00 Prime cost: Prime cost = = = Overhead charges: Over head charges = = = Indirect expenses: Indirect expenses = = = Design cost: Design cost = Rs. 10,000 8% of prime cost 0.08 X 40250 Rs.3220.00 10% of prime cost 0.1 X 40250 Rs. 4025.00 Total material cost + total machining cost 9325 + 30925 Rs. 40250.00
Total Manufacturing cost: Total manufacturing cost = Prime cost + Over charges + Indirect expenses + Design cost = 40250+4025+3220+10000 = Rs. 57495.00
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Risk and trial cost: Risk and trial cost = = = 10% of total manufacturing cost 0.1 X 57495 Rs. 5749.50
TOTAL TOOL COST Total tool cost = = TOTAL TOOL COST = Total manufacturing cost + Profit + Risk & Trial cost 57495 + 8624.25 + 5749.50 Rs. 71868.75 ~ 72,000.00 (Rs. Seventy two thousand only)
Formula used for calculations: 1. Weight of the component =density of the material (Kg/mm3) x volume of the material. 2. Volume for square in cross section (mm3) = (length) 3. 3. Volume for the rectangular cross section (mm3) = length x breadth x height 4. Volume for the circular cross section (mm3) = x (radius) 2 x length.
5. Machining cost = Number of hours taken X Cost per hour. 6. Design cost = 10% of manufacturing cost. 7. Risk factor = 20% of total manufacturing cost. 8. Tool trial and corrections cost = 5% of manufacturing cost. Direct Cost for Manufacturing the Product Machining cost depending on the running time of machines: 1. Conventional milling per hour = Rs.85. 2. Conventional turning per hour = Rs.60 -70. 3. Arc welding per inch = Rs.15. 4. CNC milling per hour = Rs.500. 5. CAD/CAM activity per hour = Rs.350. 6. Drilling operation for a hole = Rs.10.
DEPARTMENT OF P.G.STUDIES, G T & T C, MYSORE 570 016.
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7. Jig boring operation per hour = Rs.400. 8. Gas cutting per inch = Rs.5. 9. Power hack saw cutting per hour = Rs.35. 10. Surface grinding per hour = Rs.115. 11. Cylindrical grinding per hour (or how much stock to be removed) = Rs.120. 12. Direct hardening per Kg = Rs.25.
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CHAPTER
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7.2
work piece is clamped by special clamp (pneumatic clamping), so these can be replaced by hydraulic clamping for reducing the clamping time. Hence greater consistency can be achieved as the operator interference is reduced. The methodology developed in this dissertation work can be modified for multiple turbine blade assembly, so that further set-up time and laser welding time reduced.
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Appendix - A
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APPENDIX - B
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
REFERENCE BOOKS: 1. Fundamentals of Jigs and fixtures by P.H.Joshi Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, Second Edition.
2. Production technology by HMT.
3. Production technology by O.P.Khanna 4. Jigs and Fixtures design manual by Erik.K.Henriksen. 5. Jigs & fixture design by Edward G.Hoffman. 7 Tool engineering design by Nagpal Khanna Publishers, Sixth Edition. 8 An Introduction to Jigs & Tool Design by Kempster.M.H.A 9 Production technology by O.P.Khanna & M. Lal Dhanapat Rai Publications, Third edtion. 10. A Text Book of Machine Design by R.S.Khurmi and J.K.Gupta Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, third edition 11. Design data handbook by K. Mahadevan & K. Balaveera Reddy. CBS Publications & Distributors, third edition. 12. Fundamental positions of tolerances by John.V.Liggett. 13. Laser Theory, Laser technology center, GT&TC, Mysore. 14. Estimation and Coasting by T.R.Banga and S.C.Sharma.
HAND BOOKS:
1. Machine tool design hand book by (CMTI) published by Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing
international (p)Ltd.,
4. Jigs and Fixtures Design hand book by ASME
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WEB SITES: 1. www.howstuffworks.com 2. www.carrlane.com 3. www.ame.com 4. www.efunda.com 5. www.engineeringedge.com 6. www.gigapedia.org Fixture Technical Data Fixture Technical Data Fixture Technical Data Mechanical element designs Tooling material Technical eBooks
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