ThePeriodicClassification The Periodic Classification oftheElements

ThePeriodicTable AHistoricalPerspective
DavidA.Katz David A Katz
DepartmentofChemistry PimaCommunityCollege y g Tucson,AZ,USA

Apartial chartof chart of chemical symbolsin useabout 1780 1780

AntoineLavoisier (1743 1797) (17431797)

Listed33Substances Simples(elements)inhis Trait lmentaire de Chimie (1789) Inhislistareincludedlight I hi li i l d d li h (lumire)andcaloric (calorique),whichhe believedtobematerial believed to be material substances.

TheAtomicTheory
JohnDalton(17661844)
NewSystemofChemical Philosophy,1808 All bodies are constituted of a vast Allbodiesareconstitutedofavast numberofextremelysmall p particles,oratomsofmatterbound , togetherbyaforceofattraction Theultimateparticlesofall homogeneousbodiesareperfectly alikeinweight,figure,etc.

TheAtomicTheory The Atomic Theory

Atomshavedefiniterelativeweightsexpressedin to s a e de te e at e e g ts e p essed atomsofhydrogen,eachofwhichisdenotedby unity Atomscombineinsimplenumericalratiostoform compounds U d Undergivenexperimentalconditionsaparticular i i t l diti ti l atomwillalwaysbehaveinthesamemanner Atoms are indestructible Atomsareindestructible

Dalton sElements Daltons Elements

1.Oxygen 2.Hydrogen 3.Nitrogen 4.Carbon 4 Carbon 5.Sulfur 6.Phosphorus 7.Gold 8.Platinum 9. Silver 10.Mercury 10 Mercury 11.Copper 12.Iron 13.Nickel 14.Tin 15.Lead 16.Zinc 16 Zinc 17.Bismuth 18.Antimony 19.Arsenic 20.Cobalt 21.Manganese 22.Uranium 22 Uranium 23.Tungsten 24.Titanium 25.Cerium 26.Potassium 27.Sodium 27.Calcium 27 Calcium 29.Magnesium 30.Barium 31.Strontium 32.Aluminium 33.Silicon 34.Yttrium 34 Yttrium 35.Beryllium 36.Zirconium

JnsJakobBerzelius(17791848)
FromAnnalsofPhilosophy 2,443454(1813),3,512,93106,244255, 353364(1814): Thechemicalsignsoughttobeletters,forthegreaterfacilityof writing,andnottodisfigureaprintedbook.Thoughthislast circumstancemaynotappearofanygreatimportance,itoughttobe avoidedwheneveritcanbedone.Ishalltake,therefore,forthe chemicalsign,theinitialletteroftheLatinnameofeachelementary substance: butasseveralhavethesameinitialletter,Ishall , distinguishtheminthefollowingmanner: 1.IntheclasswhichIcallmetalloids,Ishallemploythe initialletteronly,evenwhenthisletteriscommontothe metalloidandsomemetal. 2.Intheclassofmetals,Ishalldistinguishthosethathave thesameinitialswithanothermetal,orametalloid,by writingthefirsttwolettersoftheword. 3.Ifthefirsttwolettersbecommontotwometals,Ishall, , , inthatcase,addtotheinitialletterthefirstconsonantwhich theyhavenotincommon:forexample,S=sulphur, Si=silicium,St=stibium (antimony),Sn =stannum (tin), C=carbonicum,Co=cobaltum (cobalt),Cu=cuprum(copper), , ( ), p ( pp ), O=oxygen,Os=osmium,&c.

ElementsknowntoBerzelius
Name Oxygen Sulphur S l h Phosphorus Muriatic radicle (chlorine) Fluoric radicle Boron Carbon Symbol O S P M F B C Name Tungsten Antimony A i Tellurium Symbol Tn Sb Te Name Palladium Silver Sil Mercury Copper Nickel Cobalt Bismuth Lead Tin Iron Zinc Symbol Pa Ag A Hg Cu Ni Co Bi Pb Sn Fe Zn Name Uranium Cerium C i Yttrium Glucinum (beryllium) Aluminum Symbol U Ce C Y Gl Al

Columbium Cl (nioblium) Titanium Zirconium Silicium Osmium Iridium Rhodium Platinum Gold Ti Zr Si Os I Rh Pt Au

Magnesium Ms Strontium Barytium Calcium Sodium Potassium Sr Ba Ca So Po

Nitric radicle N Hydrogen Arsenic H As

y Molybdenum Mo Chromium Ch

Manganese Ma

WilliamProut(17851850)
ProutsHypothesis:
IntwopapersOntheRelationbetweentheSpecific GravitiesofBodiesintheirGaseousStateandthe Gravities of Bodies in their Gaseous State and the WeightsoftheirAtoms(AnnalsofPhilosophy,1815, 1816),Prouthypothesizedthattheatomicweightof e e yee e t sa everyelementisanintegermultipleofthatof tege u t p e o t at o hydrogen,suggestingthatthehydrogenisthe fundamentalparticlethattheatomsofotherelements aremade.
Iftheviewwehaveventuredtoadvancebecorrect,wemayalmostconsiderthe (tr.:primalmatter)oftheancientstoberealisedinhydrogen;anopinion,bytheby,not altogethernew.Ifweactuallyconsiderthistobethecase,andfurtherconsiderthespecific gravitiesofbodiesintheirgaseousstatetorepresentthenumberofvolumescondensedinto iti f b di i th i t t t t th b f l d di t one;or,inotherwords,thenumberoftheabsoluteweightofasinglevolumeofthefirst matter()whichtheycontain,whichisextremelyprobable,multiplesinweight mustalwaysindicatemultiplesinvolume,andviceversa;andthespecificgravities,or absoluteweightsofallbodiesinagaseousstate,mustbemultiplesofthespecificgravityor b l t i ht f ll b di i t t tb lti l f th ifi it absoluteweightofthefirstmatter(),becauseallbodiesinagaseousstatewhich unitewithoneanotherunitewithreferencetotheirvolume.

JohannWolfgangDbereiner(17801849)
DbereinerTriads: Inhispaper,AnAttempttoGroupElementary SubstancesaccordingtoTheirAnalogies S b di Th i A l i (Poggendorf'sAnnalenderPhysikundChemie, 1829), Dbereinergroupedelementstoshowthatatomic weightsofamiddleelementwereanaverageoftwo weights of a middle element were an average of two similarelements.
ExamplesofDbereiner Triads: Examples of DbereinerTriads: theatomicweightofbrominemightbethearithmeticalmeanoftheatomic weightsofchlorineandiodine.Thismeanis(35.470+126.470)/2=80.470This numberisnotmuchgreaterthanthatfoundbyBerzelius(78.383) Usingmodernvalues: Cl=35.45 Br=79.90 I=126.90

ExamplesofDbereinerTriads:(continued) the specific gravity and atomic weight of strontia are very close to the arithmetic mean of thespecificgravityandatomicweightofstrontiaareveryclosetothearithmeticmeanof thespecificgravitiesandatomicweightsoflimeandbaryta,since [356.019(=Ca.)+956.880(=Ba.)]/2=656.449(=Sr.)andtheactualvalueforstrontiais647.285. Usingmodernvalues: Ca=40.08 Sr=87.62 S 87 62 Ba=137.33 Inthealkaligroup,accordingtothisview,sodastandsinthemiddle,sinceifwetakethevalue fortheatomicweightoflithia,determinedbyGmelin,=195.310,andthevalueforpotash= 589.916,thenthearithmeticmeanofthesenumbers,(195.310+589.916)/2=392.613,which comesveryclosetotheatomicvalueforsoda,whichBerzeliusdeterminedas=390.897. Usingmodernvalues: Li=6.94 Na=22.99 Na = 22 99 K=39.10 Ifsulfur,selenium,andtelluriumbelongtoonegroup,whichcanwellbeassumed,sincethe specificgravityofseleniumisexactlythearithmeticmeanofthespecificgravitiesofsulfurand tellurium,andallthreesubstancescombinewithhydrogentoformcharacteristichydrogen ll d ll h b b hh d f h h d acids,thenseleniumformsthemiddlemember,since[32.239(=S)+129.243(=Te)]/2=80.741 andtheempiricallyfoundatomicvalueforseleniumis79.263. Usingmodernvalues: S=32.07 Se=78.96 Te=127.60

AlexandremileBguyerde Chancourtois(18201886) Ch t i (1820 1886)

TheTelluricHelix
Usingvaluesofatomicweights Using values of atomic weights obtainedbyStanislaoCannizzaroin 1858,deChancourtoisdeviseda spiralgraphthatwasarrangedona cylinderwhichhecalledvis tellurique,ortellurichelixbecause telluriumwastheelementinthe middleofthegraph. middle of the graph. Thesurfaceofthecylinderhadacircumference of16units,theapproximateatomicweightof oxygen,andtheresultinghelicalcurve,whichde Chancourtoiscalledasquarecirlcltriangle, broughtsimilarelementsontocorresponding pointsaboveorbelowoneanotheronthe cylinder.Thus,hesuggestedthat theproperties cylinder Thus he suggested that "the properties oftheelementsarethepropertiesofnumbers.

DeChancourtoiswasthefirstscientisttoseetheperiodicityofelements De Chancourtois was the first scientist to see the periodicity of elements whentheywerearrangedinorderoftheiratomicweights.Hesawthatthe similarelementsoccurredatregularatomicweightintervals.

JohnA.R.Newlands(18371898) LawofOctaves L fO
From1863through1866,Newlandspublished papersontherelationshipsbetweenthe h l i hi b h elements.In1865hestated:
Iftheelementsarearrangedintheorderoftheir equivalents,withafewslighttranspositions,asin theaccompanyingtable,itwillbeobservedthat elementsbelongingtothesamegroupusually appearonthesamehorizontalline.

Newlandscontinued:
Itwillalsobeseenthatthenumbersofanalogouselements generallydiffereitherby7orbysomemultipleofseven;in otherwords,membersofthesamegroupstandtoeach otherinthesamerelationastheextremitiesofoneormore other in the same relation as the extremities of one or more octavesinmusic.Thus,inthenitrogengroup,between nitrogenandphosphorusthereare7elements;between phosphorusandarsenic,14;betweenarsenicandantimony, h h d i 14 b t i d ti 14;andlastly,betweenantimonyandbismuth,14also. ThispeculiarrelationshipIproposetoprovisionallytermthe This peculiar relationship I propose to provisionally term the "LawofOctaves".

Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1907) The Periodic Law, 1869

Ibegantolookaboutandwritedowntheelements withtheiratomicweightsandtypicalproperties, analogouselementsandlikeatomicweightson separatecards,andthissoonconvincedmethatthe propertiesofelementsareinperiodicdependence properties of elements are in periodic dependence upontheiratomicweights. Mendeleev,PrinciplesofChemistry,1905,Vol.II Theproblemwithpreviousattemptstoorganizethe elementswasthatthepatternofrepeating propertiesdidnotholdaftertheelementcalcium. Mendeleevproposedlongercolumnsofelementsto Mendeleev proposed longer columns of elements to allowhimtoalignthoseelementswithsimilar properties

Right:Mendeleevsfirstsketchofhisperiodictable

MendeleevsarrangementoftheelementswerepresentedtotheRussian PhysicochemicalSocietybyProfessorMenschutkin becauseMendeleevwasill. ThetablewasfirstpublishedintheGermanchemistryperiodical,Zeitschrift The table was first published in the German chemistry periodical Zeitschrift fr Chemie,in1869.

TranslationoftheGermantextinZeitschrift fr Chemie,1869: Concerningtherelationbetweenthepropertiesandatomic weightsofelements.ByD.Mendeleev. Arrangingtheelementsinverticalcolumnswithincreasing atomicweights,sothatthehorizontalrowscontainsimilar g , elements,againinincreasingweightorder,thefollowingtable isobtainedfromwhichgeneralpredictionscanbedrawn. Elementsshowaperiodicityofpropertiesiflistedinorderof sizeofatomicweights.Elementswithsimilarpropertieseither haveatomicweightsthatareaboutthesame(Pt,Ir,Os)or have atomic weights that are about the same (Pt Ir Os) or increaseregularly(K,Rb,Cs).Thearrangementoftheelements correspondstotheirvalency,andsomewhataccordingtotheir chemicalproperties(eg Li,Be,B,C,N,O,F).Thecommonest elementshavesmallatomicweights. g 1. 2. 3. Thevalueoftheatomicweightdeterminesthecharacteroftheelement. Thereareunknownelementstodiscovereg.,elementssimilartoAlandSi withatomicweightsinrange65 75. with atomic weights in range 6575. Theatomicweightsofsomeelementsmaybechangedfromknowingthe propertiesofneighbouringelements.ThustheatomicweightofTemustbein range123126.Itcannotbe128. Sometypicalpropertiesofanelementcanbepredictedfromitsatomic S i l i f l b di d f i i weight.

4.

Mendeleevpublishedarevised,horizontaltablein1871

Notethestructureofthistable. Itwasclear,thattherewereanumberofgapsofmissingelementsinthetable. Mendeleev,madeseveralpredictionsaboutpropertiesofsomemissingelements.

Mendeleevpredictedfourelements:ekaboron (Eb),ekaaluminium (El),ekamanganese (Em), andekasilicon (Es) Ekaboron andscandium Scandiumwasisolatedastheoxideinautumn,1879,byLarsFredrickNilson. PerTeodor CleverecognizedthecorrespondenceandnotifiedMendeleevlateinthatyear. Mendeleevhadpredictedanatomicmassof44forekaboron in1871whilescandiumhasan d l h d d d f f k b hl d h atomicmassof44.955910.

Ekaaluminium andgallium In1871Mendeleevpredictedtheexistenceofyetundiscoveredelementhe namedekaaluminum(becauseofitsproximitytoaluminumintheperiodictable). ThetablebelowcomparesthequalitiesoftheelementpredictedbyMendeleev withactualcharacteristicsofGallium,discoveredbyLecoq deBoisbaudran in 1875). 1875)

Ekasilicon andgermanium Germaniumwasisolatedin1882byClemensAlexanderWinkler, G i i l t d i 1882 b Cl Al d Wi kl andprovidedthebestconfirmationofthetheoryuptothattime, duetoitscontrastingmoreclearlywithitsneighboringelements thanthetwopreviouslyconfirmedpredictionsofMendeleevdo p y p withtheirs.

Ekamanganese andtechnetium TechnetiumwasisolatedbyCarloPerrierandEmilioSegr in1937,well Technetium was isolated by Carlo Perrier and Emilio Segr in 1937 well afterMendeleevslifetime,fromsamplesofmolybdenumthathadbeen bombardedwithdeuteriumnucleiinacyclotronbyErnestLawrence. Mendeleevhadpredictedanatomicmassof100forekamanganese in 1871andthemoststableisotopeoftechnetiumis Tc. 1871 and the most stable isotope of technetium is 98Tc

JuliusLotharMeyer(18301895)
In1864,Meyerproducedatableof28elements whichhelistedbytheirvalenceorcombining poweroftheelements(nowcalledoxidation f h l ( ll d id i number). The28elementswerealmostentirelymain groupelements. group elements Heincorporatedwhatwenowcalltransition metalsinanothertablein1868whichlistedthe elementsinincreasingweightorderwith elements in increasing weight order with elementswiththesamevalenceinagiven column. Meyer'stablewasnotpublisheduntil1870. y p

 Also,in1870,Lothar Meyerplottedatomicvolumesagainst atomicweight. t i i ht Meyermeasuredthevolumeofoneatomicweight'sworthof eachelement(i.e.,onemole)andfiguredthatsincethenumber ofatomsineachamountwasthesame,thevolumesmeasured of atoms in each amount was the same, the volumes measured mustrepresenttherelativevolumesoftheindividualatoms.

LewisReeveGibbes(18101894)
ProfessorofChemistryattheCollegeofCharleston from1839to1892 Between1870and1874Gibbes,withoutknowing , g anyoftheworkbyNewlands,MendeleevandMeyer, workedoutthefirstversionofhis"SynopticalTable oftheChemicalElementsandinOctober,1875, discussedanimprovedformofitatameetingofthe di d i df f it t ti f th ElliottSocietyofCharleston

TheNobelGases
In1785,HenryCavendishreportedonhisanalysisofair(Philosophical Transactions 75,372(1785):
afterwhichonlyasmallbubbleofairremainedunabsorbed,whichcertainlywasnot morethan1/120ofthebulkofthephlogisticated airletupintothetube;sothatif thereisanypartofthephlogisticated airofouratmospherewhichdiffersfromthe rest,andcannotbereducedtonitrousacid,wemaysafelyconclude,thatitisnot d b d d i id f l l d h i i morethan1/120partofthewhole.

In1894,LordRayleigh(JohnStrut)(18421919)andWilliamRamsey(1852 1916)jointlyannouncedthediscoveryofargon,bothworkingon propertiesofatmosphericnitrogen. OnAugust18,1868FrenchastronomerPierreJanssenobservedabrightyellow linewithawavelengthof587.49 nanometersinthespectrumofthe chromosphere oftheSunduringatotalsolareclipse

Cavendish

Rayleigh

OnOctober20,1868,EnglishastronomerNormanLockyer alsoobserveda On October 20 1868 English astronomer Norman Lockyer also observed a yellowlineinthesolarspectrum,whichheconcludedthatitwascaused byanelementintheSununknownonEarth.Lockyer andEnglishchemist EdwardFrankland namedtheelementwiththeGreekwordfortheSun, (helios). OnMarch26,1895SirWilliamRamsayisolatedheliumonEarthbytreatingthe On March 26 1895 Sir William Ramsay isolated helium on Earth by treating the mineralcleveite(avarietyofuraninite)withmineralacids.
Ramsay

HenryMoseley(18871915)
In1913,usingxray diffractionspectra, Moseleyshoweda Moseley showed a systematicrelation betweenwavelength andatomicnumber Resultedin arrangementofthe periodictableby periodic table by atomicnumber ratherthanatomic weight

PeriodicTable,1930 Periodic Table, 1930

HenryHubbardsperiodictable(1924)

GlennSeaborg(19121999)
Startingin1940,Seaborgwastheprincipalorco discovereroftenelements:plutonium(94), americium(95),curium(96),berkelium(97), californium(98),einsteinium(99),fermium(100), californium (98) einsteinium (99) fermium (100) mendelevium(101),nobelium(102)andelement 106,whichwaslaternamedseaborgium inhis honor.Healsodevelopedmorethan100atomic isotopes,andiscreditedwithimportant isotopes and is credited with important contributionstotheseparationoftheisotopeof uraniumusedintheatomicbombatHiroshima. Seaborgreconfiguredtheperiodictablebyplacing thelanthanide/actinideseriesatthebottomof th l th id / ti id i t th b tt f thetable. Seaborgalsoproposedextendingtheperiodic tabletoincludepredictedelementsuptoatomic number168.

GlennT.Seaborg(19121999) g( )
Extendingtheperiodictable

TheModernPeriodicTable
Groups1A8Aand1B8B Historicalnumbering Groups 1A 8A and 1B 8 B Historical numbering Groups118 IUPACnumbering

Horizontalrowsontheperiodicchartarecalledperiods. Verticalcolumnsarecalledgroups. Vertical columns are called groups Elementsinthesamegrouphavesimilarchemicalproperties.

Somegroupshavenames g p

Metals areontheleftsideoftheheavyzigzag y g g lineontheperiodictable

Nonmetals areontherightsideoftheheavyzigzag line ontheperiodictable(withtheexceptionofH). on the periodic table (with the exception of H)

Metalloids borderthezigzag line(withtheexceptionof AlandPo).

TheAGroups(groups1,2,and1318)arecalledthe MainGroupElementsorRepresentativeElements Main Group Elements or Representative Elements

TheBGroups(groups312)arecalledtheTransition ElementsorTransitionMetals Elements or Transition Metals

Thetworowsofelementsatthebottomofthetablearecalled theInnertransitionElements. ThetoprowisknownastheLanthanideSeries Th i k h L h id S i ThebottomrowisknownastheActinideSeries

PropertiesofMetal,Nonmetals, andMetalloids

MetalsversusNonmetals Metals versus Nonmetals

MetalsversusNonmetals
Metalstendtoformcations(positiveions). Nonmetalstendtoformanions(negativeions).

Metalloids

Havecharacteristics ofbothmetalsand nonmetals. Forexample,silicon For example silicon looksshiny,butis brittleandfairly poorconductor. d t

Hydrogen
Some uses of Hydrogen: commercial fixation of nitrogen from the air in the Haber ammonia process hydrogenation of fats and oils methanol production, in hydrodealkylation, hydrocracking, hydrodealkylation hydrocracking and hydrodesulphurization rocket fuel welding production of h d hl i acid d i f hydrochloric id reduction of metallic ores for filling balloons (hydrogen gas much lighter than air; however it ignites easily) liquid H2 is important in cryogenics and in the study of superconductivity since it melting point i only j t i its lti i t is l just above absolute zero

Group1A:AlkaliMetals
Li,Na,K,Rb,Cs,Fr
Colored flames C l d fl react with water
Soft, metallic solids

Li

Na

K Li Na K

Group2A:AlkalineEarthMetals
Be,Mg,Ca,Sr,Ba,Ra

Burning B i magnesium

Ca, Sr, Ba react with water. Mg reacts slowly

Group3A:B,Al,Ga,In,Tl
Sapphire: Al2O3 with Fe3+ or Ti3+ impurity gives blue whereas V3+ gives violet.

Gallium melts at 29.8C 29.8

Ruby: Al2O3 with Cr3+ impurity

Group4A:C,Si,Ge,Sn,Pb

Quartz, SiO2

Ge

Group5A:N,P,As,Sb,Bi
Phosphorusfirst isolatedbyBrandt fromurine,1669

Whiteandredphosphorus

Group6A:O,S,Se,Te,Po
Sulfuricacid dripping from from snottite in caveinMexico

ElementalShasaring structure.

Group7A:Halogens
F,Cl,Br,I,At

Group8A:NobleGases
He,Ne,Ar,Kr,Xe,Rn
Xe forms three compounds: XeF2 XeF4 (below) XeF X F6 Kr forms only one stable compound: KrF2

TransitionElements Transition Elements

ColorsofTransitionMetal Compounds

Iron

Cobalt

Nickel

Copper

Zinc