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DESIGNAND DEVELOPMENT OF SUGARCANE BAGASSE BASED FABRIC AND COMPOSITES A PROJECT WORK Submitted by DEEPAK KUMAR.V KARTHIK.V KARTHIKEYAN.M.C 0810202010 0810202022 0810202024

MITHUN CHAKARAVARTHI.P 0810202305 in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN TEXTILE TECHNOLOGY KUMARAGURU COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY, COIMBATORE-49 (An Autonomous Institution Affiliated to Anna University of Technology, Coimbatore)

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF SUGARCANE BAGASSE BASED FABRIC AND COMPOSITES is the bonafide work of V.DEEPAK KUMAR, V.KARTHIK, M.C.KARTHIKEYAN, P.MITHUN CHAKARAVARTHI who carried out the project work under my supervision.

SIGNATURE Mr. R.SENTHIL KUMAR Supervisor

SIGNATURE Dr.BHAARATHI DURAI Professor and Head Department of Textile Coimbatore

Assistant Professor (SRG),Department of Textile Technology, Coimbatore 641049.

Technology,Kumaraguru college of Technology, Kumaraguru College of Technology, 641049.

Submitted for the examination held on:

Internal Examiner

External Examiner

TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER NO. ABSTRACT LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES TITLE PAGE NO.

1 1.1 1.2 1.3

INTRODUCTION Background of the Project Significance of the Project Project at glance

OBJECTIVES

LITERATURE REVIEW

4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6

METHODOLOGY Alkali treatment Properties Testing of strength Oil spilling test Flammable test Absorption load test

CONCLUSION

REFERENCE

ABSTRACT Recycling is a key component of modern waste reduction in the todays industry scenario. Recycling is processing used materials (waste) into new products to prevent waste of potentially useful materials, reduce the consumption of fresh raw materials, reduce energy usage, reduce air pollution (from incineration) and water pollution (from landfilling) by reducing the need for "conventional" waste disposal, and lower greenhouse gas emissions as compared to virgin production. Sugarcane is not only annually renewable resources, but can also be turned into products normally made from plastic or paper. Bagasse is the sugarcane fiber remaining after extraction of juice from sugarcane. Bagasse draws more and more attention because of the increasing concern for disposal of agricultural residues and the need for enhancing the sugar cane industrys profitability. The appearance and handle of sugarcane bagasse is similar to bastfibre. Nonwovens and Composites are the two product development techniques which find use in many applications in various technical fields. There is a lack of research in utilizing the sugarcane bagasse as a textile raw material and in producing textile based product. In order to produce sugarcane bagasse based textile product, characterization of bagasse material is essential to sort out the end use application. The aim of our project is tocharacterize, design and development of sugarcane bagasse material.

LIST OF TABLES

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE PROJECT: For each 10 tons of sugarcane crushed, a sugar factory produces nearly 3 tons of wet bagasse. Since bagasse is a by-product of the cane sugar industry, the quantity of production in each country is in line with the quantity of sugarcane produced. Bagasse is considered a renewable material because it is the waste material from sugarcane, a crop that is harvested annually. In addition, several bagasse products have been certified 100% compostable by the Biodegradable Products Institute. Considering the above mentioned information,the current project on the production of sugarcane bagasse based products and composites have been planned eventually. The projects have been mainly planned with the aim of reusing of natural waste to make out a usable and profitable product. 1.2 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROJECT: The intention of this project is to developtextile material out ofbagasse. This project is also done with the ecofriendly and biodegradable material which is theneed of the hour. Producing sugarcane bagasse based ecofriendly products usually mean that their production or certainly use doesn't damage the environment. Another aspect that goes into making bagasse based products is complete respect for the environment. Bagasse based composites are not only safe for the environment, but they also help keeping your family protected from being exposed to any toxic chemicals. Most standard-quality products nowadays contain the use of harmful substances to a certain degree, which may potentially lead to cancer or other serious health problems. Cotton has long been a dominant natural fiber in the textile industry. Low quality grieve fibers or low value textile wastes predominantly consisting of cotton fibers that could not be used directly in the apparel industry, have a high potential in the manufacturing of composite nonwovens that are quite promising materials in the insulation market, especially in the automobile insulation market. At the same time, scientists and fiber producers are exploring the use of alternative fiber crops (such as kenaf, jute, and hemp) and agricultural byproducts (such as sugar cane and rice by-products) which are presently underutilized. For example, in addition to its high strength and porosity,bagasse fiber is biodegradable, environmentally friendly, and able to grow in a wide range of climatic conditions and soil types. Agricultural residues and by-products of the sugar industry, such as bagasse, could be used to produce a multitude of value-added non-food products, ranging from fibers and composites, to films and resins. Until now, most of the bagasse has been compressed and burned in-house by cane processors as a low calorie generating fuel, or has been utilized as raw material for producing some low value-added products such as mulch and inexpensive ceiling tiles. Bagasse has also been used to manufacture fiber boards and particle boards, but it was not competitive with products from other woody sources. Bagasse fibers that were alkali extracted from the cane stalk in some previous research conducted at Louisiana State University gave a new prospective solution. If a suitable method will be

established to convert bagasse fibers into useful technical nonwovens, this will enhance the profitability of both sugar cane farming and mills. The utility of nonwoven products increased dramatically in the last decade due to their light weight and low production cost. Nonwovens have found utility in automotive manufacturing, building construction, medical applications, etc. There are two important steps in nonwoven manufacturing that will influence the characteristics of the final product.The first is the forming of the fiber web, and the second is the web bonding method. In the web forming procedure it is customary to blend two or more fibers in order to improve the characteristics of the final product. 1.3 PROJECT AT A GLANCE: Precisely, this project encompasses making of sugarcane bagasse based products and composites. This involves a detailed work starting from sourcing of sugarcane bagasse, softening process, testing process like thermal insulation, absorption tests etc...It also involves making of nonwoven products and composites. Thus the significance of the project is achieved.

2.0 OBJECTIVES:

1) To characterize the sugarcane bagasse material. 2) To study and analyze the processing ability in spinning process. 3) To give pretreatment to enhance the processability in needle punching process. 4) To produce nonwoven based products from the sugarcane bagasse. 5) To produce composites from sugarcane bagasse. 6) To analyze various properties of the sugarcane bagasse fabric and composites.

3.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 3.1 Sugarcane Bagasse:

Bast fibers represent fibers that are obtained from the stem or stalk of the plants. Grasses such as sugar cane have stems which contain bundles of fibers, but they are not classified as bast fibers. The difference comes from the arrangement pattern of the fiber bundles; in regular bast fibers the bundles are in a definite ring pattern, while in sugar cane they are more randomly dispersed. Nowadays several varieties of sugar cane are used in agriculture. The sugar cane plants are known to grow best in tropical and subtropical regions.Sugar cane stalk characteristics vary considerably depending on variety. Typical commercial varieties grown under normal field conditions have a height of 1.5 to 3 meters and are 1.8 to 5 cm in diameter. The stalk surface can be greenish, yellowish or reddish in color and is covered with a thin waxy layer.The fibro vascular bundles are rather widely spaced in the central part of the stalk, but towards the periphery their numbers increase while their sizes decrease. The bundles are composed of smaller ultimate fiber cells which are bound together by lignin and hemicellulose.

Fibers in bagasse consist mainly of cellulose, pentosans, and lignin. Cellulose is a natural linear polymer and has polymer chains of 2000 to 3000 units (Paturau, 1989) and a specific gravity about 1.55 (Elsunni, 1993). Cellulose is highly crystalline regardless of the source. The ordered chains are tightly packed and have strong intermolecular hydrogen bonding because of the preponderance of hydroxyl groups (Romanoschi, 1998). The cellulose is present in three types: , , and . The cellulose is known as pure cellulose, whereas and cellulose combined are called hemicellulose (Marthur, 1975). The hemicelluloses are chemically linked with cellulose molecules. The other main compound in sugar cane fiber bundles is lignin which is a high molecular weight substance. Because it is not possible to isolate lignin quantitatively from plant materials without chemical or mechanical degradation, its true molecular weight is not known. The amount of lignin that naturally occurs in sugar cane depends to a great extent on the variety and age of the cane. R. Wirawan, S. M. Sapuan, Y. Rupiah and A. Khalil stated thatSugarcane bagasse is divided into two major components. They are pith and rind. Pith is the inner part of sugarcane bagasse while rind is the outer part of it. In this study, the flexural properties of pith reinforced poly (vinyl chloride) composites were compared to that of rind composites with the same matrix in variation of fiber content. The composites were produced by compression moulding method. The fibre contents were 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50% in weight. Threepoint bending tests were carried out to measure the flexural properties of the composites. It has been found that, in general, the addition of fiber improved the flexural modulus of the materials. Meanwhile, the rind composites were of superior flexural properties compared to the pith composites. Rowellstatedthat the cane stalk consists of inner pith that contains most of the sucrose, and an outer rind with lignocelluloses fibers. Cane processing crushes the entire stalk to extract the sucrose, from which refined

sugar is produced. Large quantities of the bagasse, containing both crushed rind and pith fibers, remain after sugar extraction. Disposal of this byproduct from the sugar industry is so far still inefficient. 3.2 Sugarcane Bagasse in Composite Production: NurSheliAkmaRamlistated that the bagasse fiber is a residue of a sugarcane milling process. In this research, bagasse fiber has been used as filler in polypropylene (PP) resin to open up further possibilities in waste management. The chemical treatment using polypropylene-graft maleic anhydride (MAPP) was carried out to modify the fiber properties. The effect of fiber treatment and the fiber content on the composite properties were studied. The compounding process was used as the PP/bagasse fiber composites fabrication. The properties of PP/bagasse fiber composites were investigated through mechanical and physical testing. The presence of MAPP as fiber treatment has accommodated better mechanical and physical properties for PP/bagasse fiber composites. This has been proved by morphology studied which compatibilized PP/bagasse composite has smooth surface without fiber pulled out. From tensile test, tensile strength and elongation at break increased with increasing filler content while modulus of elasticity decreased for both compatibilized and uncompatibilized PP/bagasse fiber composite. The addition of bagasse fiber in PP has decreased the flexural strength and flexural modulus for both compatibilized and uncompatibilized PP/bagasse fiber composites. Based on water absorption behaviour, it can be observed that the compatibilized PP/bagasse fiber composites showed lower water absorption behaviour compared to the uncompatibilized one. Increasingly, agricultural residues are being used to manufacture construction panel products such as particleboard and the sturdier, more costly medium density fiberboard (MDF). In January, the Acadia Board Company of New Iberia, Louisiana will begin producing particleboard made from bagasse, the fibrous portion of sugar cane stalks that remains after removing the juice. The plant will use 50,000 tons of bagasse to produce 18 million square feet of 3/4-inch board. The bagasse comes from the nearby Cajun Sugar Cooperative, which processes sugar cane from 95 farmers. Although there are five other bagasse-toparticleboard plants in the world, this is the first in North America. Acadia Board's product, called Dura Cane, falls between the categories of particleboard and MDF, as do many agricultural fiber-based boards. Dura Cane is expected to exceed ANSI standards for particleboard, but doesn't meet all of those for MDF. DuraCane is bonded with MDI (methylene diphenyl diisocyanate), a formaldehyde-free resin. DuraCane's applications include ready-to-assemble furniture, kitchen and bath cabinets, and laminate flooring.Typically, in the sugarcane processing, large amounts of sugarcane bagasse are produced (approximately 240 kg of bagasse with 50% humidity per ton of sugarcane), which are nowadays burnt in boilers for steam and electricitygeneration. Better technologies for cogeneration and optimization of bioethanol production process allow it to have a bagasse surplus (Ensinas et al., 2007), which may be used as a fuel source for electricity

generation or as raw material for producing bioethanol and other biobased products (Buddadee et al., 2008). Bioethanol from lignocellulosic materials, such as sugarcane bagasse, has been studied for the past few decades with great interest, but its production in industrial scale has not yet become viable (Balat et al., 2008). 3.3 Sugarcane Bagasse in Erosion Control Applications: The range in diversity of these products will expand as new categories are introduced on the market. Also standard methods are being developed to test their performance. Temporary Degradable erosion control products are used to improve the establishment of vegetation. These products are used in places where vegetation alone is sufficient in providing site protection after the temporary products have been degraded. These products are being manufactured into rolls, named as Rolled Erosion Control Products (RECP). In this category four types are included: Temporary Degradable an RECP composed of degradable materials that reduces soil erosion and promotes vegetation growth Erosion Control Net (ECN) a natural fiber woven net or a geosynthetic mesh used either as a component in the manufacture of RECPs, or separately, as a temporary degradable RECP to secure loose fiber mulches Open Weave Textile (OWT) a temporary degradable RECP composed of processed natural or polymer yarns woven into a matrix Erosion Control Blanket (ECB) a temporary degradable RECP composed of natural or polymer fibers bound together, (mechanically or chemically), to form a continuous matrix Long-term Non-degradable erosion control products composed of non-degradable materials intended to supply erosion protection, increase vegetative growth and expand the erosion control performance limits of vegetation. Included in this category are two types: 1. Long-term Non-degradable a RECP composed of non-degradable materials. 2. Turf Reinforcement Mat (TRM) a Long-term Non-degradable RECP that is usually buried to add stability to the soil, composed from synthetic non-degradable filaments processed into a three dimensional matrix. TRMs provide sufficient thickness and strength to permit soil retention and development of vegetation within the matrix [17]. According to the Blue Book of Building and Construction there are 13 companies in Louisiana marketing erosion control products [4]. Among them, Industrial Fabrics, Inc., Baton Rouge, LA, is providing a large variety of erosion control blankets, turf reinforcement mats and accessories. Two of the most effective products with a high demand on the market are the Curlex blankets manufactured by American Excelsior Company, Arlington, TX and the straw blankets manufactured by North American Green,

Evansville, IN [23]. The Curlex blanket is fabricated from elongated randomly entangled fibers, usually referred to as wood wool or simply excelsior. The fibers are held together by polypropylene that forms a net on one or both sides of the blanket. This type of netting is photodegradable. The blanket-net assemblies are then suitably packaged in individual rolls to facilitate easy handling and transportation to the erosion control site. Here, the blankets are unrolled evenly and smoothly, without stretching the material, and then anchored to the ground using wood or steel staples [1, 24]. Curlex blanket manufactured by American Excelsior Co. Despite the erosion control effectiveness of these excelsior blanket-net assemblies and the other blankets formed using a similar pattern, erosion control blankets of this general type have a distinct disadvantage. The problem relates to the use of netting material fiber containment. Even though the netting may be photodegradable, it may last long enough to present ecological problems. The net is capable of trapping birds and other small wildlife animals in their attempt to nest or inhabit in the erosion control blankets. Until the netting material photo degrades, it does present an impediment to normal activity. It would be a great advantage to provide an alternative to the netting material. In this case, the net could be replaced with a bonding agent that would hold the fibers together such as heat, glue or some other mechanical mean. Sugarcane is grown in twenty four Louisiana parishes and is processed in thirteen mills. In current production processes, cane is crushed to extract the juice. Bagasse is the sugar technology term for the fibrous residue of sugarcane after the application of the extraction process. Mill run bagasse, south Louisiana Sugars Cooperative, bagasse is an important material, suitable for many applications. However, in the cane industry it is utilized as a source of energy generation by burning it in steam boilers. Where there is an efficient energy economy, a cane sugar factory produces excess bagasse. This excess can be converted into valuable products, like paper and fiberboards or used as fuel or animal feed. The composition of the bagasse and its characteristics vary widely: 1. Water content: 45-55% (sometime higher) 2. Fiber content: 53-40% 3. Water soluble components: 2.5%

4. Insoluble ash content: 1% up to higher value, depending on, for example, contamination of the cane by soil during harvest the actual composition depends on various factors. These include: the sugarcane variety, soil conditions, agronomic techniques, climatic conditions as well as processing conditions. 3.4 Mechanical Processing of Sugarcane Bagasse: a) Fiber and Pith Bagasse fiber represents the water-insoluble material of the sugarcane. It is divided into two components with almost the same chemical composition, but with a different structure: true fiber and pith. The true fibers are represented by the tough, hard-walled, cylindrical cells of the rind and vascular tissue. The soft, thin-walled, irregularly shaped parenchymatous cells of the inner stalks tissue represent the pith and they contain the majority of the sucrose. b) Bagasse Handling and Storage Depending on the process plan of the factory and the fiber content of the sugarcane, surplus bagasse should be understood as the bagasse that exceeds the required mass for energy production used in cane processing. This surplus should not be confused with the temporary surplus which is stored for a short term to fill temporary gaps in bagasse production due to interruptions of cane supply or extraction plant stoppages. Surplus bagasse may be stored dry or wet, in bulk or baled, either as whole bagasse or depithed. c) Bagasse Depithing Depithing is the operation of separating the fibrous portion of bagasse (the rind) from the non-fibrous portion (the pith). Usually bagasse has to be entirely depithed to improve pulping and pulp quality for uses in paper and paperboard production. About 30% of the whole bagasse is represented by pith. There are three methods for depithing: 1. Dry depithing 2. Moist depithing 3. Wet depithing For the dry depithing the pith is removed by screening the bagasse. It is a simple and inexpensive method, but dry bagasse creates a lot of dust, which is injurious to humans when inhaled. Moist depithing is more suitable at the sugar factories. The bagasse that comes out of the milling plant has moisture of about 50% and can be immediately sent to the depithing equipment. In wet depithing, bagasse is mixed with water

in a vessel provided with a powerful agitator, to help remove the pith from the fibers. Wet depithing gives clear fibers deprived more or less of the entire pith, but this method requires large quantities of water. d) The Benefits of Depithing Pith has undesirable properties especially in its low fiber length, which reduces the strength of the paper. Also because pith has high absorption properties any attempt in the chemical treatment of bagasse will result in high consumption of chemicals. If separated, pith can be used for burning fuel or animal feed, leaving the fibers to be used in paper and fiberboard manufacturing. The depithing process is reducing the weight of the bagasse therefore reducing the cost for the transportation. e) Delignification Process The amount of lignin that naturally occurs in sugarcane depends on the variety and age of the cane. The amount of sugars, lignin and lignin-like compounds increases as the plant advances in age. The result is a hardening of the fibers up to the time of tasseling, when the plant is considered fully mature. After the flowering stage, the sugarcane plant is predisposed to consume its stock of sucrose and lignin as a result of the physiological changes due to flowering. Because of the consumption of the organic compounds, the rind and thus the fiber bundles become softer and elastic.

3.5 Composites: Composites that forms heterogeneous structures which meet the requirements of specific design and function, imbued with desired properties which limit the scope for classification. Composite materials are common engineering materials which are designed and manufactured for various applications including automotive components, sporting goods, aerospace parts, consumer goods, and in the marine and oil industries. The growth in composite usage also came about because of increased awareness regarding product performance and increased competition in the global market for lightweight components. Among all materials, composite materials have the potential to replace widely used steel and aluminum, and many times with better performance. Replacing steel components with composite components can save 60 to 80% in component weight, and 20 to 50% weight by replacing aluminum parts. Contemporary composites results from research and innovation from past few decades have progressed from glass fibre for automobile bodies to particulate composites for aerospace and a range other applications. A composite material is made by combining two or more materials to give a unique combination of properties.Fibre-reinforced composite materials differ from the above materials in that the constituent materials are different at the molecular level and are mechanically separable. In bulk form, the constituent

materials work together but remain in their original forms. The final properties of composite materials are better than constituent material properties. Modern materials engineers have used the composite conceptreinforcement in a matrixto create a class of modern materials that offers opportunities significantly greater than those of more common engineering materials. One of the principal characteristics of all composites is that they have a reinforcement phase distinct from the matrix phase. The individual characteristics of the two phases combine to give the composite its unique properties. Composite materials can be classified based on matrices, reinforcement types and forms.

3.5.1 Reinforcements The role of the reinforcement in a composite material is fundamentally one of increasingthe mechanical properties of the neat resin system. All of the different fibres usedin composites have different properties and so affect the properties of the compositein different ways. For most other applications,the fibres need to be arranged into some form of sheet, known as a fabric, to makehandling possible. Different ways for assembling fibres into sheets and the variety offibre orientations possible lead to there being many different types of fabrics, each ofwhich has its own characteristics.

3.5.1.1 Properties of Reinforcing Fibres & Finishes The mechanical properties of most reinforcing fibres are considerably higher thanthose of unreinforced resin systems. The mechanical properties of the fibre/resincomposite are therefore dominated by the contribution of the fibre to the composite.The four main factors that govern the fibers contribution are: 1. The basic mechanical properties of the fibre itself. 2. The surface interaction of fibre and resin (the interface). 3. The amount of fibre in the composite (Fibre Volume Fraction). 4. The orientation of the fibres in the composite.

3.6 Significance of Natural Fibre Composites: Emergence of polymers in the beginning of the 19th century has provided the researcher the new dimensions to use the natural fibre in more diversified fields. Recently, the use of natural fibres as reinforcement has become increasingly important, and, owing to their different properties, the common methods for processing fibre-reinforced plastics have to be adjusted to meet new and more demanding requirements. The environmental pollution generated during the production and recycling of these synthetic based materials has once again drawn the attention for the use of natural fibre.

Table . Types Of Natural Fibers And Their Physical Charecteristics.

Due to the light weight, high strength to weight ratio, corrosion resistance and other advantages, natural fibre based composites are becoming important composite materials in building and civil engineering fields. In case of synthetic fibre based composites, despite the usefulness in service, these are difficult to be recycled after designed service life. However, natural fibre based composites are environment friendly to a large extent.

Table Sources And Applications Of Natural Fibers

3.7 Manufacturing of Composites The mixture of reinforcement/resin does not really become a composite material until the last phase of the fabrication, that is, when the matrix is hardened. After this phase, it would be impossible to modify the material. Fabricating a composite part is generally concerned with placing and retaining fibres in the direction and form that is required to provide specified characteristics while the part performs its design function. The fabrication of composites is a complex process and it requires simultaneous consideration of various parameters such as component geometry, production volume, reinforcement & matrix types, tooling requirements, and process and market economics. 3.8 Compression Moulding: Compression moulding is one of the oldest manufacturing techniques in the composites industry. The recent development of high strength, fast cure, sheet moulding compounds bulk moulding compounds and advancement in press technology is making the compression moulding process very popular for mass production of composite parts.

The raw material for thermoplastic compression moulding process is glass mat thermoplastics (GMT). GMT is primarily made from polypropylene resin and continuous but randomly oriented glass fibres. Meltimpregnated GMT is the most common material form. Powder-impregnated, discontinuous fibre reinforced GMT is also used.

A pre-weighed amount of a polymer mixed with chopped reinforcing fibres, hardening agent, anti-adhesive agent and pigment (charge) is placed into the lower half of the mould. The charge may be in form of powders, pellets, putty-like masses or pre-formed sheets. The charge is usually preheated prior to placement into the mould. Preheated polymer becomes softer resulting in shortening the moulding cycle time.

After placing the laminate to be cured called the 'charge' in the core of the mould, the cavity isthen closed at a rate of usually 4-12 mm/sec. In most cases the mould is heated to 150C (302F), which causes the charge viscosity to be reduced.

Figure: Compression Moulding Machine (Opening) With increasing mould pressure as the mould is closed, the charge flows towards the cavity extremities, forcing air out of the cavity. The moulding pressure based on projected part area ranges from 0.7 to 9 MPa (100 to 1200 psi). The upper half of the mould moves downwards, pressing on the charge and forcing it to fill the mould cavity.

Figure: Assembling Of The Material In Compression Moulding Machine Figure : Compression Moulding Machine Closed. Higher moulding pressure causes sink marks, while lower pressure cause scumming of the mould and porosity.The mould, equipped with a heating system, provides curing (cross-linking) of the polymer matrix (if thermosetting resin is processed). The curing time is usually between 25 sec to 3 minutes depending on several factors including' resin-initiator-inhibitor reactivity, part thickness, component complexity and mould temperature.The mould is opened and the part is removed from it by means of the ejector pin.

The resultant, compression-moulded parts possess a spectrum of properties, including high rigidity and strength (tensile, compression, impact) and good surface properties (gloss, smoothness, paintability).In principle, the thickness of compression-moulded compounds are not limited (in contrastto injection moulding).The exertion of high pressure eliminates the problem of development of voids. The primary advantage of the compression moulding is its ability of producing large number of parts with little dimensional variations, if any, from part to part. A wide variety of shapes, sizes and complexity can be produced by compression moulding.

Advantages 1. It is the one of the fastest techniques for making composite structural parts. 2. Because of higher productivity of the process, fewer tools and less labor are required.

Limitations 1. A high capital investment is required for the process. 2. The process is limited to high production volume environments. 3. The typical fibre volume fraction for this process is 20 to 30% because of the high viscosity of the resin. 4. The surface finish on the part is of an intermediate nature.

3.8 Testing of Composite Materials Composite materials are both inhomogeneous and anisotropic in comparison to metallic materials that are homogeneous and isotropic. The elastic properties of a material are a measure of its stiffness. This property is necessary to determine the deformations that are produced by loads. The elastic properties of the composite are determined by the elastic properties and volume fraction of the constituents (fibre and matrix) an additionally by the orientation of the reinforcement. Elasticity theory can be used to determine the elastic constants given sufficient information, however, the strength of a composite material is affected by a number of parameters including fibre orientation, volume fraction of fibres, the amount of porosity, fibre length, lamination layup and environmental effects.

3.8.1 Types of Loading a) Tension

Figure: Tensile Stiffness The response of a composite to tensile loads is very dependent on the tensile stiffness and strength properties of the reinforcement fibres, since these are far higher than the resin system on its own.

b) Compression

Figure: Compression The adhesive and stiffness properties of the resin system are crucial in determining the compression properties, as it is the role of the resin to maintain the fibres as straight columns and to prevent them from buckling. c) Shear

Figure: Shear This load is trying to slide adjacent layers of fibres over each other. Under shear loads the resin plays the major role, transferring the stresses across the composite. The interlaminar shear strength (ILSS) of a composite is often used to indicate this property in a multi-layer composite (laminate).

d) Flexure

Figure: Flexural Property Flexural loads are really a combination of tensile, compression and shear loads. When loaded as shown, the upper face is put into compression, the lower face into tension and the central portion of the laminate experiences shear.

3.9 Fibre Volume fraction The fibre volume fraction of cured polymer-matrix composites can be obtained by a number of methods including: matrix digestion, ignition loss, areal weight, and image analysis methods. Image analysis uses digital imaging of a micrograph detailing the fibres and matrix. These methods generally apply to laminates fabricated from most material forms and processes.

3.10 Tensile Testing The basic physics of most tensile test methods are very similar: a prismatic specimen with a straight sided gauge section is gripped at the ends and loaded in uniaxial tension. The principal differences between these tensile test specimens are the specimen cross-section and the load-introduction method. By changing the specimen configuration, many of the tensile test methods are able to evaluate different material configurations, including unidirectional laminates, woven materials, and general laminates.

This test method provides procedures for the evaluation of tensile properties of single-skin laminates. The tests are performed in the axial, or in-plane orientation. Properties obtained can include tensile strength, tensile modulus, elongation at break (strain to failure), and Poissons ratio. For most oriented fiber laminates, a rectangular specimen is preferred. Panels fabricated of resin alone (resin casting) or utilizing randomly oriented fibers (such as chopped strand) may be tested using dog-bone (dumbbell) type specimens. The test axis or orientation must be specified for all oriented-fiber laminates.

1. In-plane tension test a)Straight-sided specimen tension tests

Figure: Straight Sided Specimen Tension Tests In the tensile test method, a tensile stress is applied to the specimen through a mechanical shear interface at the ends of the specimen, normally by either wedge or hydraulic grips. Composite materials are usually

gripped using some form of friction grip, where the load is transferred to the specimen through gripping faces which are roughened with serrations or a cross-cut pattern. Parallel clamping grips, positively closed by manual or hydraulic means, allow the operator to control the gripping force on the specimen. It has already been noted that misalignment can be caused by inadequate grips. Bending of the specimen will also occur if the fibre layers are not equally spaced, for instance as a result of poor consolidation. The material response is measured in the gauge section of the specimen by either strain gauges or extensometers, and the elastic material properties subsequently determined. Two-axis extensometers are available which measure lateral contraction for Poissons ratio determination.

The important factors that affect tension testing results include control of specimen preparation, specimen design tolerances, control of conditioning and moisture content variability, control of test machine-induced misalignment and bending and consistent measurement of thickness. Fiber alignment, control of specimen taper, and specimen machining (while maintaining alignment) are the most critical steps.

3.11 Compression Test Most lightweight structures and substructures include compression members, which may be loaded in direct compression, or under a combination of flexural and compressive load. The axial stiffness of compression members can only be controlled by the cross-sectional area. The main difficulty in compression testing of composites is prevention of buckling of the specimen. The ratio of compressive to tensile strength is low for the highly anisotropic fibres, but the compressive strength of glass fibres is probably higher than their tensile strength. The parameters found to be significant contributors to accuracy of the data include fabrication practices, control of fibre alignment, improper and/or inaccurate specimen machining, improper tabbing procedures if tabs are used, poor quality of the test fixture, improper placement of the specimen in the test fixture, improper placement of the fixture in the testing machine, and an improper test procedure. The in-plane compressive test methods are typically used to generate the ultimate compressive strength, strain-at-failure, modulus, and Poissons ratio of axially or transversely loaded unidirectional composite specimens.

FIGURE : COMPRESSION TESTING MACHINE. There are three basic methods of introducing a compressive load into a specimen: direct loading of the specimen end, loading the specimen by shear, and mixed direct and shear loading. Compressive test methods may also be further classified as having a supported or an unsupported test section to prevent buckling. Unsupported test section method uses an unsupported gauge length loaded by shear loading. This test method comprises two fixture types, the Celanese (conical wedge grips) and rectangular wedge grips. These fixtures use tabbed or untabbed specimens and transfer load via wedge-type grips.

Another method applies a combination of end loading and shear loading to the test specimen. The fixture comprises four blocks clamped in pairs to either end of the test specimen. The surfaces of the fixture blocks in contact with the specimen are roughened, to increase the effective coefficient of friction and hence the shear load transfer. The ratio between shear and end-loading is adjusted by the torque applied to the clamping bolts. Because of the flexibility of this test method, many different types of composite materials may be tested. Four point bending test uses flexure of a sandwich beam to determine compressive properties. The sandwich beam method comprises a honeycomb-core sandwich beam that is loaded in four-point bending, placing the upper face sheet in compression. The upper and lower face sheets are of the same materials and configuration. The upper face sheet is designed to fail in compression when the beam is subjected to four-point bending. The beam is loaded to failure in bending, resulting in the measurement of compressive strength, compressive modulus and strain-at-failure if strain gauges are applied to the upper surface. Axial compression testing is also useful for measurement of elastic and compressive fracture properties of brittle materials or low-ductility materials. In any case, the use of specimens having large L/D ratios should be

avoided to prevent buckling and shearing modes of deformation.Specimens should have a uniform rectangular cross section, 12 mm (0.5 inch) wide by 140 mm (5.5 inches) long. 3.12 In-plane & Interlaminar Shear Properties Shear testing of composite materials has proven to be one of the most difficult areas of mechanical property testing. While shear modulus measurements are considered accurate, the biggest difficulty is in measuring shear strength. The presence of edges, material coupling, non-pure shear loading, non-linear behaviour, imperfect stress distributions or the presence of normal stresses make shear strength determination questionable.The most common specimen has a constant rectangular cross section, 25 mm (1 in) wide and 250 mm (10 mm) long.

3.13 Interlaminar Fracture Interlaminar fracture, or delamination, continues to be one of the more serious failure modes for laminated composite structures. Delamination arises from high out of plane loads where there are no fibres to resist these loads. Delamination can occur from tensile, shear loads, or a combination of the two. Several methods to characterize delamination have been developed which include. a) Mode-I Fracture The double cantilever beam (DCB) specimen has been widely used to measure the mode I interlaminar fracture toughness, GICof composites. The DCB specimen is a laminate with a non-adhesive insert placed at the mid-plane, at one end prior to curing or consolidation, to simulate a delamination. Generally, unidirectional parallel sided specimens are used. Typically, loads are applied to the DCB via loading blocks or hinges adhesively bonded to the surface of the DCB. During test, the specimen is subjected to displacement controlled loading and usually experiences stable delamination growth allowing several values of GIC, to be determined along the specimen's length. As the delamination grows, fibre bridging usually occurs increasing the energy required to propagate the delamination further. Therefore, only the first value of GIC obtained from delamination growth from the insert is unaffected by fibre bridging and can be considered a generic interlaminar fracture toughness.

Figure: Mode 1- Fracture

b) Mode II- Fracture There are several different test configurations for measuring mode II fracture toughness. The specimen configuration is largely the same, it is the method of applying load to promote a mode II fracture that varies. The configuration is a parallel, unidirectional beam as in the DCB. The three main method of loading the specimen are: End loaded shear - specimen is loaded as a cantilever in specialisedfixturing End notched flexure - specimen is loaded in 3 point bending resulting in unstable delamination growth. 4 end-notched flexure - as for the ENF except the specimen is loading in 4 point bending resulting in stable delamination growth.

Figure:Mode 2 Fracture The 4 end-notched flexure loading has advantages over the other tests. The 4-point bending loading fixture uses rollers to support the specimen and to allow it to rotate freely. The upper loading rollers are allowed to rotate about the vertical centre line of the fixture to account for the asymmetric bending of the specimen

caused by one half of the beam containing a delamination. The specimen is loaded in displacement control and generally stable delamination results. Fibre bridging does not always occur for delamination grown in mode II, however, delamination values at delamination initiation are generally used to quote mode II toughness. However, there is significant friction between the delamination faces with this method. A compliance calibration technique has been developed for the 4ENF specimen where the mode II fracture toughness is determined from GIIC = mpc 2/ b pc - critical load at delamination initiation b Specimen width m Slope of the plot of the specimen compliance versus delamination length