PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS

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UNDERSTANDING CHIP FORMATION

Tool geometry Solid mechanics
Fracture mechanics Yielding mechanism Dislocations etc

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TOOL GEOMETRY

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FRACTURE MECHANICS

Fracture mechanics is the field of mechanics concerned with the study of the formation of cracks in materials It uses the method of analytical solid mechanics to calculate the driving force on a crack and those of experimental solid mechanics to characterize the materials resistance to fracture
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FRACTURE MECHANICS
ELASTIC BEHAVIOUR

When a material is being loaded in uni-axial tension, compression, or simple shear it will behave elastically until a critical value of normal stress or shear stress is reached and then it will behave plastically.

If the applied loads are relatively low, the crystal responds

by simply stretching or compressing the distance between the atoms. The basic lattice unit does not change, and all of the atoms remain in their original position relative to one another.

Elastic deformation stretches atomic bonds in the material

away from their equilibrium radius of separation of a bond, without applying enough energy to break the interatomic bonds.

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FRACTURE MECHANICS PLASTIC DEFORMATION

As the magnitude of applied load is increased, the distortion increases to a point where the atoms must either (1) break bonds to produce a fracture, or (2)slide over one another to produce a permanent shift of atoms position.

Plastic deformation is the shearing of atomic planes

over one another to produce a net displacement.

Plastic deformation tends to occur along planes

having the highest atomic density and greatest separation.

Thus plastic deformation occurs by the preferential

sliding of maximum-density planes.

The specific combination of plane and direction is

called a slip system, and the shear deformation is known as 7/15/12 slip

THEORY OF DISLOCATION
Dislocations are defined as line defects in a material's crystal structure. They are surrounded by relatively strained (and weaker) bonds. Dislocations are generated and move when a stress is applied. The motion of dislocations allows slip plastic deformation to occur. Edge dislocations allow slip to occur and slip provides ductility in metals. 7/15/12

EDGE DISLOCATION

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WORK HARDENING
Work hardening, also known as strain hardening, is the strengthening of a metal by plastic deformation. This strengthening occurs because of dislocation movements within the crystal structure of the material.

Increase in the number of dislocations is a quantification of work hardening. Plastic deformation occurs as a consequence of work being done on a material; energy is added to the material.

However, ductility of a work-hardened material is decreased. Ductility is the extent to which a material can undergo plastic deformation, that
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is, it is how far a material can be plastically deformed before fracture.

The dislocation density increases due to the formation of new dislocations and dislocation multiplication. The consequent increasing overlap between the strain fields of adjacent dislocations gradually increases the resistance to further dislocation motion. This causes a hardening of the metal as deformation progresses. This effect is known as strain

hardening(also work hardening). If dislocation motion and plastic deformation have been hindered enough by dislocation accumulation, and stretching of electronic bonds and elastic deformation have reached their limit, a third
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mode of deformation occurs: fracture

FRACTURE

There are in general two types of fracture-ductile fracture and brittle fracture Ductile fracture occurs after appreciable plastic strain. Brittle fracture occurs at a strain that is below the 7/15/12 yield stress.

GRIFFITHS THEORY
Griffith suggested that the low fracture strength observed in experiments, as well as the size-dependence of strength, was due to the presence of microscopic flaws in the bulk material. To verify the flaw hypothesis, Griffith introduced an artificial flaw in his experimental specimens. The artificial flaw was in the form of a surface crack which 7/15/12

The experiments showed that the product of the square root of the flaw length (a) and the stress at fracture (f) was nearly constant, which is expressed by the equation:

Griffith developed a thermodynamic approach to explain the relation that he observed. The growth of a crack requires the creation of two new surfaces and hence an increase in the surface energy Griffith found an expression for the constant C in terms of the surface energy of the crack by solving the elasticity problem of a finite crack in an elastic plate. Briefly, the approach was:
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 Compute the potential energy stored in a perfect specimen under an

uniaxial tensile load.

Fix the boundary so that the applied load does no work and then introduce

a crack into the specimen. The crack relaxes the stress and hence reduces the elastic energy near the crack faces. On the other hand, the crack increases the total surface energy of the specimen.
Compute the change in the free energy (surface energy elastic energy) as

a function of the crack length. Failure occurs when the free energy attains a peak value at a critical crack length, beyond which the free energy decreases by increasing the crack length, i.e. by causing fracture. Using this procedure, Griffith found that
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Where E is the Young's modulus of the material and is the surface energy density of the material. Assuming E = 62 GPa and = 1 J/m2 gives excellent agreement of Griffith's predicted fracture stress with experimental results for glass.

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CHIP FORMATION MECHANISM

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OBSERVATIONS
Cutting process generates heat. Thickness of the chip is greater than the thickness of the layer from which it came. Hardness of the chip is greater than the hardness of the parent material.

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These that

observations the process

indicate of chip

formation is one of deformation or plastic flow of the material. Plastic flow takes place by means of a phenomenon called slip along the slip plane. As the tool touches the work the work gets deformed initially the deformation is elastic in nature. As the tool gets forward

applying more force the elastic limit is overcome, the material starts flowing plastically. 7/15/12

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During the plastic deformation, shearing of the atoms take place this in turn leads to dislocation(edge and screw) to occur in the material. This shearing action takes place along the slip plane or the shear plane. Due to the dislocation the atoms are separated and reformed and dislocation increases the ductility of the material. As a result the material flows plastically up to a point after which ductility decreases and the material becomes more harder the process is called as work hardening. Beyond this point the material becomes brittle and harder and with the further increase in the load leads to the fracture in the material
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During the dislocation taking place the atoms are subjected to severe tension and compressive material . As the metal approaches the shear plane , it does not deform until the shear plane is reached. It then undergoes substantial amount of shear as it crosses a thin primary shear zone. There is no further plastic flow as the chip proceeds up the face of the tool. The small amount of secondary shear along the tool face is generated as the chip flows over the tool in turn generating the friction.
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force as a result tensile and compressive

strain field is created which eventually increases the hardness of the

The back of the chip is rough due to the strain being inhomogeneous. This is due to the presence of points of weakness or stress concentration present in the metal being cut. The shear plane passing through a point of stress concentration will deform at a lower value of stress than one that does not include a point of stress concentration. Thus some material in the chips strains more than the other metal resulting in wavy surface on the back of the chip.

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THE CARD MODEL

This model assumes the material cut as a deck of cards. Exaggerates the in homogeneity of strain. Assumes shear to occur on a perfectly plane surface. This model says that; Ignores any built up edge that may be All atomic planes are not active shear planes, but only those present. associated with a structural defect (second phase particle, Involves an arbitrarily assumed shear missing atom, an impurity, a grain boundary, etc). angle. This results in in homogenous strain and a series of sharp points on both surfaces of the chip.
7/15/12 The points on the free surface remain and serve as an indication

Those on the tool face side are removed by burnishing. If the structural defects are widely spaced, the free surface of the chip will have a saw-toothed appearance. For less intense and less widely spaced defects, the free surface of the chip will be relatively smooth. The teeth will not extend continuously across the chip but will be localized and staggered.

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CHIP FORMATION ANALYSIS

The friction between the tool and the work material plays an important role in metal cutting, this friction can be reduced by Improved tool finish and sharpness of the cutting edge. Use of low-friction work or tool materials. Decreased cutting speed (v) Increased rake angle. Use of a cutting fluid.

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When the friction reduces there is a corresponding increase in the shear angle accompanying the decrease in the thickness of the chip. The plastic strain in the chip decreases with the increases in the shear angle. The length of the shear plane significantly decreases with the increase in the shear angle. Therefore the force along the shear plane decreases with the decrease in the shear area. The temperature of a cutting tool may reach a high value particularly when a heavy cut is taken at a high speed.

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MECHANICS IN METAL CUTTING

The force acting on a cutting tool during the process of metal cutting are the fundamental importance in the design of cutting tools. The determination of cutting forces necessary for deformation the work material at the shear zone is essential for several important requirements: To estimate the power requirements of a machine tool. To estimate the straining actions that must be resisted by the machine tool components, bearings, jigs and fixtures. To evaluate the role of various parameters in cutting forces. To evaluate the performance of any new work material, tool 7/15/12

FORCES ACTING ON THE CHIP

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When the chip is isolated as a free body, we need to consider only two forces-the force between the tool face and the chip (R) and the force between the work piece and the chip along the shear plane (R). For equilibrium these must be equal. R=R The forces R and R are conveniently resolved into three sets of components as indicated in figure. along and perpendicular to the shear plane, Fs and Fn. along and perpendicular to the tool face, F and N. in the horizontal and perpendicular to the tool face, Fc and Ft.

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MERCHANT CIRCLE ANALYSIS

If the forces R and R are plotted at the tool point instead of at their actual points of application along the shear plane and tool face, we obtain a convenient and compact diagram. This type of
7/15/12 plot was suggested by merchant (1945) and the corresponding

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HEAT IN METAL CUTTING

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Energy dissipate d
Shearin g

Heat

Temperatu re rise

Tool

Machin e Tool

Proble m

Machinin g process
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Work part

The main sources of heat in metal cutting are shown in the Figure. These three distinct heat sources are: the shear zone (q1), where the main plastic deformation takes place the chip-tool interface zone (q2), where secondary plastic
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The power consumed in metal cutting is largely converted into heat near the cutting edge of the tool, and many of the economic and technical problems of machining are caused directly or indirectly by this heating action. The cost of machining is very strongly dependent on the rate of metal removal, and costs may be reduced by increasing the cutting speed and the feed rate. Machining is inherently characterized by generation of heat and high cutting temperature. At such elevated temperature the cutting tool if not enough hot hard may lose their form stability quickly or wear out rapidly resulting in increased cutting forces, dimensional inaccuracy of the product and shorter tool life.

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The magnitude of this cutting temperature increases, though in different degree, with the increase of cutting velocity, feed and depth of cut, as a result, high production machining is constrained by rise in temperature. This problem increases further with the increase in strength and hardness of the work 7/15/12

Following are the observations depicted from the above figure Maximum temperature is about halfway up the face of the tool Steep temperature gradient across the thickness of the chip. Some chips may become red hot, causing safety hazards to the operator and thus necessitating the use of safety guards.
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Work part

Tool

Dimensional change Thermal damage Distortion

Machine Tool

Loss of strength Decrease hardness Increased wear rate Thermal damage

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ADVERSE EFFECTS DUE TO TEMPERATURE RISE Adversely affect the strength, hardness and wear resistance of the cutting tool Cause dimensional changes in the part being machined, making control of dimensional accuracy difficult Can induce thermal damage to the machined surface, adversely affecting its properties and service life.

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The heat balance in chip formation can be written as: Total amount of heat generated = (Amount of heat away in chips ) + (Amount of heat remaining in the cutting tool )+ (Amount of heat passing into the work piece )+ (Amount of heat radiated into the surrounding).
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when a material is deformed elastically, the energy required for the operation is stored in the material as strain energy, and no heat is generated. However, when a material is deformed plastically, most of the energy used is converted into heat. In metal cutting the material is subjected to extremely high strains, and the elastic deformation forms a very small proportion of the total deformation; therefore it may be assumed that all the energy is converted into heat.

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Various studies have been made of temperatures in cutting, based on heat transfer and dimensional analysis, using experimental data. A simple and approximate expression for the mean temperature for orthogonal cutting is K = thermal diffusivity (ratio of thermal conductivity to volumetric specific heat) of the Work piece material (m2/sec). pC = volumetric specific heat of the work piece (J/mm2-C) t = depth of cut (mm) V = cutting velocity (m/sec) c
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TOOL WEAR

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DEFINITION
The change of shape of the tool from its original shape, during cutting, resulting from the gradual loss of tool material .

OBJECTIVES
Study the general characteristics of tool wear Understand the causes of tool wear and their consequences Set up the tool failure criteria and understand the meaning of toollife
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Cutting tools are subjected to an extremely severe rubbing process. They are in metal-to-metal contact between the chip and work piece, under conditions of very high stress at high temperature. The situation is further aggravated (worsened) due to the existence of extreme stress and temperature gradients near the surface of the tool. During machining, cutting tools remove material from the component to achieve the required shape, dimension and surface roughness (finish). However, wear occurs during the cutting action, and it will ultimately result in the failure of the cutting tool. When the tool wear reaches a certain extent, the tool or active edge has to be replaced to guarantee the desired cutting action.
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TOOL WEAR PHENOMENA

The high contact stress between the tool rake-face and the chip causes severe friction at the rake face, as well, there is friction between the flank and the machined surface. The result is a variety of wear patterns and scars which can be observed at the rake face and the flank face CRATER WEAR FLANK WEAR NOTCH WEAR CHIPPING ULTIMATE FRACTURE.
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RAKE FACE WEAR

Crater wear: The chip flows across the rake face, resulting in severe friction between the chip and rake face, and leaves a scar on the rake face which usually parallels to the major cutting edge. The crater wear can increase the working rake angle and reduce the cutting force, but it will also weaken the strength of the cutting edge. The parameters used to measure the crater wear can be seen in the diagram. The crater depth KT is the most commonly used
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FLANK WEAR CLEARANCE SURFACE

Wear on the flank (relief) face is called Flank wear and results in the formation of a wear land. Wear land formation is not always uniform along the major and minor cutting edges of the tool. Flank wear most commonly results from abrasive wear of the cutting edge against the machined surface. Flank wear can be monitored in production by examining the tool or by tracking the 7/15/12

STAGES OF TOOL WEAR

1. INITIAL (OR PRELIMINARY) WEAR REGION: Caused by micro-cracking, surface oxidation and carbon loss layer, as well as micro-roughness at the cutting tool tip in tool grinding (manufacturing). For the new cutting edge, the small contact area and high contact pressure will result in high wear rate. The initial wear size is VB=0.05-0.1mm normally. 2 STEADY WEAR REGION After the initial (or preliminary) wear (cutting edge rounding), the micro-roughness is improved, in this region the wear size is proportional to the cutting time. The wear rate is relatively constant.

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3 SEVERE (OR ULTIMATE OR CATASTROPHIC) WEAR: When the wear size increases to a critical value, the surface roughness of the machined surface decreases, cutting force and temperature increase rapidly, and the wear rate increases. Then the tool loses its cutting ability. In practice, this region of wear should be avoided. Flank wear and chipping will increase the friction, so that the total cutting force will increase. The component surface roughness will be increased, especially when chipping occurs. Flank wear will also affect the component dimensional accuracy. When form tools are used, flank wear will also change the shape of the component produced.
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NOTCH WEAR

This is a special type of combined flank and rake face wear which occurs adjacent to the point where the major cutting edge intersects the work surface. The gashing (or grooving, gouging) at the outer edge of the wear land is an indication of a hard or abrasive skin on the work material. Such a skin may develop during the first machine pass over a forging, casting or hot-rolled work piece. It is also common
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CHIPPING
Chipping of the tool, as the name implies, involves removal of relatively large discrete particles of tool material. Tools subjected to discontinuous cutting conditions are particularly prone to chipping. Chipping of the cutting edge is more like micro-breakages rather than conventional wear. Built-up edge formation also has a tendency to promote tool chipping. A built-up edge is never completely stable, but it periodically breaks off. Each time some of the built-up material is removed it may take with it a lump (piece) of tool edge

ULTIMATE FAILURE
The final result of tool wear is the complete removal of the cutting point - ultimate failure of the tool. This may come about by temperature rise, which virtually causes the tool tip to soften until it flows plastically at very low shear stress. This melting process seems to start right at the cutting edge and because material flow blunts the edge, the melting process continues back into the tool; within a few seconds a piece of tool almost as large as the engaged depth of cut is removed.

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MECHANISM OF TOOL WEAR

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ABRASIVE WEAR MECHANISM

Abrasive wear is mainly caused by the impurities within the work piece material, such as carbon, nitride and oxide compounds, as well as the builtup fragments. This is a mechanical wear, and it is the main cause of the tool wear at low cutting speeds.
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ADHESIVE WEAR MECHANISM

The simple mechanism of friction and wear proposed by Bowden and Tabor is based on the concept of the formation of welded junctions and subsequent destruction of these. Due to the high pressure and temperature, welding occurs between the fresh surface of the chip and rake face (chip rubbing on the rake face results in a chemically clean surface). [Process is used to advantage when Friction Welding to produce twist drills, and broaches, and in tool manufacturing] Severe wear is characterized by considerable welding and tearing of the softer rubbing surface at high wear rate, and the formation of relatively large wear particles. Under mild wear conditions, the surface finish of the sliding surfaces improves

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DIFFUSION WEAR MECHANISM

This diffusion results in changes of the tool and work piece chemical composition. There are several ways in which the wear may be dependent on the diffusion mechanism. 1. Gross softening of the tool Diffusion of carbon in a relatively deep surface layer of the tool may cause softening and subsequent plastic flow of the tool. This flow may produce major changes in the tool geometry, which result in high forces and a sudden complete failure of the tool. 2. Diffusion of major tool constituents into the work. (chemical element loss) The tool matrix or a major strengthening constituent may be dissolved into the work and chip surfaces as they pass the tool. In cast alloy, carbide or ceramic tools, this may be the prime wear phenomenon. With HSS tools, iron diffusion is possible, but it seems unlikely to be the predominant wear process. Diamond tool - cutting iron and steel is the typical example of carbon diffusion.

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3. Diffusion of a work-material component into the tool

A constituent of the work material diffusing into the tool may alter the physical properties of a surface layer of the tool. For example, the diffusion of lead into the tool may produce a thin brittle surface layer, this thin layer can be removed by fracture or chipping.

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CONSEQUENCES OF TOOL WEAR INFLUENCE ON CUTTING FORCES Crater wear, flank wear (or wear-land formation) and chipping of the cutting edge affect the performance of the cutting tool in various ways. The cutting forces are normally increased by wear of the tool. Crater wear may, however, under certain circumstances, reduce forces by effectively increasing the rake angle of the tool. Clearance-face (flank or wear-land) wear and chipping almost invariably increase the cutting forces due to increased rubbing forces. SURFACE FINISH ( ROUGNESS) The surface finish produced in a machining operation usually deteriorates as the tool wears. This is particularly true of a tool worn by chipping and generally the case for a tool with flank-land wear - although there are circumstances in which a wear land may burnish (polish) the work piece and produce a good finish.
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DIMENSIONAL ACCURACY Flank wear influences the plan geometry of a tool; this may affect the dimensions of the component produced in a machine with set cutting tool position or it may influence the shape of the components produced in an operation utilizing a form tool. (If tool wear is rapid, cylindrical turning could result in a tapered workpiece) VIBRATION OR CHATTER Vibration or chatter is another aspect of the cutting process which may be influenced by tool wear. A wear land increases the tendency
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CASE STUDY

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The shop floor has received an order to make 40 components made of AISI 4140 steel, high speed steel cutting tool is used to produce the component. A new machinist says that the cutting time can be reduced to half the time which was before if the tool room would purchase a suitable tungsten carbide cutter. But the foreman says he does not believe that the machinists estimate is realistic, and he is not going to spend more money on the carbide tool. Both of them went to the supervisor of the shop, for a decision on whether or not to buy the cutter.

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Let Length=600mm Diameter=150mm. Labour cost/hr =Rs12/Machine overhead/hr =Rs 400/Grinding cost/hr = Rs 15/Grinding machine overhead cost /hr = Rs 50/Idle time = 5mins Initial tool cost (hss)= Rs60/Initial tool cost (carbide)= Rs80/Tool grinding cost = 5(15+50)/60
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cost Co = 12+40=52/hr =Rs0.8667/min

Factors to be considered in the selection of cutting tool material: Work material characteristics (chemical and metallurgical state). Part characteristics (geometry, accuracy, finish, and surface integrity requirements) Machine tool characteristics, including the work holders (adequate rigidity with high speed and feed ranges) Support systems ( operators ability, sensors, controls, method of lubrication and chip removal)

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Required characteristics of a tool material: High hardness Resistance to abrasion, wear, chipping, of the cutting edge High toughness (impact strength) High hot hardness Strength to resist bulk deformation Good chemical stability (inertness or negligible affinity with the work material) Adequate thermal properties High elastic modulus (stiffness) Consistent tool life Correct geometry and surface finish
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TOOL LIFE EXPECTANCY The Taylors equation for tool life expectancy provides a good approximation. VcTn = C A more general form of the equation is where Vc=cutting speed T=tool life D=depth of cut F=feed rate x and y are determined experimentally n and C are constants found by experimentation or published data; they are properties of tool material, workpiece and feed rate

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From the data hand book For high speed material and work material steel 4140,230bhn. Depth of cut=0.050inches. =1.27mm. Feed=0.0127inches per revolution N=0.180 C=190 Cutting speed V=40 m/min=130 ft/min. Taylors tool life equation is given by VcTn = C logV+nlogT=logC log130+0.180logT=log190 T=8.234 mins

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For carbide material and work material steel 4140,230bhn. Depth of cut=0.062inches. =1.574mm. Feed=0.025inches per revolution N=0.25 C=475 Cutting speed V=40 m/min=300 ft/min. Taylors tool life equation is given by VcTn = C logV+nlogT=logC log300+0.25logT=log475 T=6 mins

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ECONOMY
MINIMUM COST CRITERIA HSS MATERIAL

n Co Optimum cutting speed V=C ----------------------------Ce + TcCo 1- n n

V=89.310 m/min Optimum tool life T =

Tc + Cc /Co

1- n/ n

T=66mins Machining Time Tm = 3.1428DL/1000fV Total time =Ti + Tm(Tc/T) Tt=15.192mins Tm=9.893mins

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Cost Of Operation = Co ( Ti ) + Tm (Ce + TcCo ) C=Rs129/-

MAXIMUM PRODUCTION RATE CRITERION HSS MATERIAL Optimum Cutting Speed, V = C (n/TC(1-n))^n V=127.65m/min Optimum tool life, T= Tc(1-n)/n T=9mins
Machining Time Tm = 3.1428DL/1000fV Tm=6mins Total time =Ti + Tm(Tc/T) Tt=12.33mins Cost Of Operation = Co ( Ti ) + Tm (Ce + TcCo ) C=Rs79.98/-

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ECONOMY
MINIMUM COST CRITERIA CARBIDE MATERIAL

n Co Optimum cutting speed V=C ----------------------------Ce + TcCo 1- n n

V=184.80 m/min Optimum tool life T =

Tc + Cc /Co

1- n/ n

T=43.64mins Machining Time Tm = 3.1428DL/1000fV Total time =Ti + Tm(Tc/T) Tt=9mins Tm=2mins

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Cost Of Operation = Co ( Ti ) + Tm (Ce + TcCo ) C=Rs29/-

MAXIMUM PRODUCTION RATE CRITERION CARBIDE MATERIAL Optimum Cutting Speed, V = C (n/TC(1-n))^n V=303.3m/min Optimum tool life, T= Tc(1-n)/n T=6mins
Machining Time Tm = 3.1428DL/1000fV Tm=1.47mins Total time =Ti + Tm(Tc/T) Tt=6.97mins Cost Of Operation = Co ( Ti ) + Tm (Ce + TcCo ) C=Rs22.96/-

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CONCLUSION
On comparison the tool life of the has material is better than the carbide material. But the machining time using the carbide material is lesser than using the hss material. Cost of the operation is lesser in case of carbide material comparatively. Hence the shop floor can go with the carbide tool material provided with good cutting fluid to avoid friction and excess of heat generation and adverse effects of high cutting speeds
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Thank you

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