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Chapter 4:
DATABASE APPROACH
e.g.,
Figure 4.2 [p.133] How database approach eliminates the four disadvantages of flat files
Data
DBMS
Typical features
Program development
DBMS
USERS
Formal access: application interfaces Data manipulation language (DML) DBMS operations: 6 steps [Figure 4.4 p135] Informal access: query
Define query SQL is industry de facto standard query language Select, from, where commands Review Figure 4.5 [p.137] SQL process
DBA
DBA
planning Database design Database implementation Database operations & maintenance Change & growth
PHYSICAL DATABASE
Sequential Random
DATABASE MODELS
Hierarchical Network
Relational
HIERARCHICAL MODEL
Data Integration in the Hierarchical Model. [Figure 4.10] Navigational Databases. [Figure 4.9] Limitations:
NETWORK MODEL
Attributes(data fields)- across the top of the table forming columns. Tuples- Intersecting the columns to form rows in the table .
RELATIONAL MODEL:
E. F. Codd originally proposed the principles of the relational model in the late 1960s. The most apparent difference between the relational model and the navigational models is the way in which data associations are represented to the user. The relational model portrays data in the form of two-dimensional tables. [Figure 4.13]
RELATIONAL MODEL:
Properly designed tables possess the following four characteristics:
All occurrences at the intersection of a row and a column are a single value. No multiple values (repeating groups) are allowed. The attribute values in any column must all be of the same class. Each column in a given table must be uniquely named. However, different tables may contain columns with the same name. Each row in the table must be unique in at least one attribute. This attribute is the primary key.
RELATIONAL MODEL:
The linkages in the relational model are implicit. To illustrate this distinction, compare the file structures of the relational tables in Figure 4.14 with those of the hierarchical example in Figure 4.10.
RELATIONAL MODEL:
Data Currency in a DDP Environment Distributed Databases Partitioned Databases [Figure 4.16] Replicated Databases [Figure 4.18]
Database in DDP
The problem with this approach is maintaining current versions of the database at each site.
Concurrency control
Classified Time-stamps
Deadlock Resolution.
Access controls User views / subschema [see Figure 4.20, p.156] Database authorization table [Table 4.3,
p.157]
User-defined procedures Mothers maiden name Data encryption Biometric devices Inference controls (query) example (Table 4.4 p. 158)
Review policy and job descriptions Examine programmer authority tables for access to DDL Interview programmers and DBA
Transaction Files.
Off-Site
Backup. [Figure 4.23] Transaction Log (Journal). Checkpoint Feature. Recovery Module.
CONTROLLING & AUDITING DBMS: Audit Procedures AUDITOBJECTIVE: Verify that controls over the data resource are sufficient to preserve the integrity and physical security of the database.
Audit
auditor should verify that backup is performed routinely and frequently to facilitate the recovery of lost, destroyed, or corrupted data without excessive reprocessing. The auditor should verify that automatic backup procedures are in place and functioning, and that copies of the database are stored off-site for further security.
Chapter 4: