How Does the Cell Divide?

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Cell division is an important life process. It results in the production of new cells. As organisms live, they are in a constant state of repair and disrepair. Their cells grow old or are damaged. And to survive, organisms must have a means to replace dying or injured cells.
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Chromosomes and Cell Division All cells come from preexisting cells. The process that results in the formation of new cells is called cell division.

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How Does the Cell Divide?

The nucleus divides first, followed by the division of the cytoplasm, thus, resulting first in the formation of two daughter nuclei, and later in the formation of two daughter cells. Since the nucleus contains the chromosomes of the cell, division also involves the equal

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Cell Types Based on Function and Chromosome Number

There are two kinds of cells in multicellular organisms based on function, namely, a. vegetative, somatic or body cells; and b. reproductive cells.
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 They

form the body of the organism, like the cells of the stomach and the legs of an animal or the cells of the leaves, roots and stems of a flowering plant. They are mainly concerned with the maintenance of the life processes of the whole organism. Such processes may

Involved

in the production of offspring. In animals, the reproductive cells are called gametes, of which there two kinds, sperm and egg. In plants, like in mosses, ferns and flowering plants, Reproductivekinds Vegetative or there are two Cells of reproductive Somatic Cells cells, namely, the 7/28/12

In terms of chromosome number

Diploid Vegetative Cells Haploid Reproductive Cells

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Chromosome Number
animal has a definite number of Fruitfly 8chromosomes found in each of its body cells. This number of chromosomes which Onion 16 is established at the time of the formation of the zygote or fertilized egg is often referred to as the chromosome number of the species.
Each kind of plant 46 Human Species and

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Since the zygote is the result of the union of the egg cell and the sperm cell, it may be said that the zygote consists of two sets of chromosomes. One set is contributed by the sperm cell or is of paternal origin; and the other set is contributed by the egg cell or is of maternal origin.
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 If

a cell, like the zygote, has two sets of chromosomes, the cell is said to have the diploid number of chromosomes, symbolized as 2N. If a cell, like the sperm cell or egg cell, has only a single set of chromosomes, then it is said to have the haploid number of chromosomes,

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 In

man, the zygote has 46 chromosomes and is said to be diploid (2N), whereas the sperm cell and the egg cell has only 23 chromosomes and is said to be haploid (N). The zygote of all the vegetative or somatic cells that resulted from the cell division of the zygote are diploid or have 2N chromosome number. Thus, the chromosome number of the species, in general, also refers to the diploid number (2N).

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Through breeding techniques or through freaks of nature, the chromosome number of the somatic or vegetative cells, originally 2N, may be 3N, or three haploid (N) number of chromosomes. Or it may be doubled (4N), quadrupled (8N), etc. this chromosomal condition is generally called polyploidy and the chromosome number of the somatic or vegetative cells is called polyploid. Hence the terms triploid (3N), tetraploid (4N), etc.
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Although polyploid organisms are rare in the animal kingdom, they are fairly common in the plant kingdom. At present, polyploidy can be and has been induced in both plants and animals for economic purposes.

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For example, many of the commercial roses and strawberries are polyploid plants. They produce larger flowers and/or larger fruits. Triploid animals are sexually sterile, hence bigger since food is allocated to growth of the body rather than to development of reproductive cells.

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Chromosome Structure
Prior

to division, each chromosome in a cell is double-stranded. Each strand is called chromatid. Since the two chromatids of a chromosome contain identical genes or genetic information, they are also sometimes referred to as sister chromatids. They are joined together by a centromere.

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 The

location of the centromere is specific for each kind of chromosome found in the nucleus of a cell. The genes that control the inheritance and expression of a particular characteristics have specific positions, or loci (singular, locus), along the length of the chromosomes. Thus, with around 35,000 genes in a human cell, there may very well be several hundreds to around one thousand genes that are linearly arranged along the entire length of every chromosome.

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Homologous Chromosomes
In

a diploid cell, each kind of chromosome is represented by a pair. Each pair of chromosomes is referred to as homologous chromosomes.

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Homologous chromosomes are structurally alike. They are of the same size or length. Their centromeres are similarly positioned so that the so-called arms of the homologous chromosomes are of the same length.
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 In

onion, where 2N is equal to 16 chromosomes, there are 8 pairs of homologous chromosomes. In humans, females have diploid chrosome number (2N) equal to 46. Thus, there are 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes, of which 22 pairs are somatic or body chromosomes and the last pair are sex chromosomes. The 23rd pair consists of two X chromosomes. In males, where 2N is equal to 46, there are 22 pairs of homologous chromosomes and one pair of chromosomes that are not strictly homologous since they are of different sizes. These are the sex chromosomes, consisting of the larger X chromosome and the smaller 7/28/12

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Cell Division
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There are two common types of cell division that cells say undergo, namely, mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis and meiosis are types of nuclear division, with the division of cytoplasm referred to as cytokinesis. However, the term mitosis and meiosis are often used and understood in the broad sense as including not only nuclear division but also cytoplasmic division.

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Mitosis: Growth, Repair and Asexual Reproduction

Did you know that you began as a single cell called zygote? The zygote is the product of the union of your fathers sperm cell and your mothers egg cell. It is but one-tenth of a millimeter. So how did you reach the size you now have? Did you also know that 28 days from now, every single layer of skin that covers your body will all be gone replaced by a set of completely new ones?
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Cell Division for

Multicellular organisms, cell division causes Unicellular organisms, cell division is a form

of increase in cell number, can lead to anasexual reproduction that produces new individuals. growth and repair of damaged body parts.

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The type of cell division involved in growth, repair and asexual reproduction is called mitosis.

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The Cell Cycle

Cells go through a cycle of alternating stages of division and rest from division.

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The nondividing stage, which is devoted largely to cell growth, is called interphase. Most actively dividing cells spend some 90% of their time at this stage. When cells divide, two parts may be involved, the nucleus and the cytoplasm. The division of the nucleus is called mitosis and the division of cytoplasm is called cytokinesis.

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Mitosis
type of nuclear division that produces two daughter nuclei, each containing exactly the same number of chromosomes as the parent nucleus. Includes four stages, namely: -prophase -metaphase -anaphase -telophase
A

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When cytokinesis occurs, it happens simultaneously with the last stage of nuclear division. Every time a cell divides, it must ensure that a complete and faithful copy of genetic information found in the DNA (packaged into chromosomes) is passed on to the daughter cells.
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Mitosis ensures that each daughter cell receives a complete set of chromosomes. Every part of the body, every cell of the skin, bone or blood, originated from one cell and hence contains identical sets of chromosomes and copies of genetic information.
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How Often Do Cells Divide?

Some

cells complete the cycle of interphase and mitosis within 24 hours, while others may take years before they go through the process of cell division.

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What Changes Occur in Each Stage of the Cell Cycle?

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is the stage between two successive cell divisions. Includes three phases, as follows: -Gap 1 (G1) phase -Synthesis (S) phase -Gap 2 (G2) phase

Interphase

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Gap 1 (G1) Phase

The

period when the cell increases in size in preparation for cell division. RNA and proteins including enzymes needed for making DNA are synthesized.

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Synthesis (S) Phase

The

period during which DNA is synthesized and chromosomes are replicated. Each strand of the double stranded produced is called a sister chromatid.

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Gap 2 (G2) Phase

The

period when the cell continues to synthesize RNA and proteins and increase in size.

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 Although

DNA synthesis is confined at the S phase, the synthesis of organelles occurs throughout interphase. Before division, the cells grow to their characteristic adult size. After division, the cells may go through G1 to prepare for the next division. Or they may go through into an arrested, quiescent stage known as G0 state differentiate. Some cells, such as nerve cells and blood cells, remain in G0 all their lives.

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Mitosis involves the following stages:

Prophase

is when chromosomes coil up into rod-shaped structures, nucleoli and nuclear membrane disappear and spindle fibers are formed.

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 Metaphase

involves the alignment double-stranded chromosomes at the equatorial plate, with the kinetochores attaching the chromosomes to the spindle fibers.

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 Anaphase

begins with the division of the centromeres and ends with the migration of singlestranded chromosomes to the poles.

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 Telophase

is also known as reverse prophase since it involves the uncoiling of chromosomes, reappearance of the nucleoli and nuclear membrane, and disappearance of the spindle fibers.

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Cytokinesis in Plant Cells

Involves

the formation of a cell plate that eventually develops into the cell wall and the middle lamella.

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Cytoplasmic Division in Animal Cells

Occurs

furrow.

with the formation of a cleavage

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 Sometimes,

nuclear division is not followed by cytoplasmic division and a cell with two nuclei, called a binucleated cell, is formed. Many cells of the human liver are binucleated. If there are repeated nuclear divisions without cytoplasmic division taking place, then a cell with many nuclei, called a multinucleated cell, is formed. The cells of

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When Cell Division Goes Wrong

Cell division may not always go on as would When cells divide too slowly, wounds it

take a while to heal; damaged tissues are normally should. Some cells may divide too not repaired soon enough. fast, while others may divide too slowly or not at cells cease to divide as in the brain, When all. When cells divide faster than they should, and damage nerve cells are not replaced, resulting develop into cancerous growth. they mayin memory loss.

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Old cells eventually suffer from complete failure of division. As our cells grow old and die, so do we.

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When Cells Stop Dividing

Scientists may not be very far from unlocking the mysteries of youth and aging, immortality and death. The secret is believed to be in that part of the chromosome called telomere and in that enzyme known as telomerase.
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What are telomeres and telomerase?

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 The

human body is made up of over 100 trillion cells. Each cell contains a nucleus, which contains chromosomes that are made up of linearly arranged cells. In order to grow, the cells in our body must undergo division (mitosis). Before diving, our cells make duplicate copies of chromosomes. These chromosomes are distributed equally to the daughter cells. Each chromosome has a special protective cap called a telomere. With each cell division, the telomere gets shorter. After about 50 divisions, the telomere becomes so short that the cell stops dividing. This means the cell has become old and may malfunction 7/28/12 and die

Is there a way to keep the telomere from shortening?

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We may become immortal if our cells could go on dividing forever. To prevent premature aging and death, cells naturally produce telomerase, an enzyme that elongates telomeres. Telomerase delays cell aging and death by ensuring that telomeres do not become critically short.

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Meiosis: Preparing for Sexual Reproduction

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The sex cells are produced through a type of nuclear division that reduces chromosome number to half of that of the parent cell. This reduction-division is called meiosis.
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Meiosis involves two consecitive divisions

Meiosis I A cell that

divides by meiosis produces four new daughter cells. Meiosis II

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Meiosis 1
Prophase

1 homologous chromosomes pair up. This is called synapsis. At this time, exchange of genetic material may occur through a process referred to as crossingover. Metaphase 1 each pair of homologous chromosomes attach to a single spindle fiber. Anaphase 1 one double-stranded chromosome in the pair moves to one pole, while the other double-stranded chromosome in the pair moves to the opposite pole
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 Telophase

1 two nuclei are produced, each containing only half the chromosome number of the original parent cell.

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Meiosis II
Similar

to mitosis. Each double stranded chromosome attaches to a spindle fiber, its centromere splits into two, and the two strands of the chromosome migrate to opposite poles. At the end of the cell division, four haploid (N) daughter cells are produced.

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What is the significance of the reduction of chromosome number during meiosis? Allows the formation of haploid gametes
Ensures

that, even after fusion of gametes, the chromosome number of the zygote or offspring remains the same as the diploid chromosome number of the parents. Makes possible the maintenance of constant chromosome number in the species generation after generation.
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Chromosomal Abnormalities
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 About

1 in 150 babies in the United States is born with a chromosomal abnormality. These abnormalities are caused by errors in the number or structure of chromosomes. Many children with a chromosomal abnormality have mental and/or physical birth defects. Some chromosomal abnormalities result in miscarriage or stillbirth. Understanding what chromosomes are may make it easier to understand the wide range of problems chromosomal abnormalities can cause.

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What are the causes of chromosomal abnormalities? Chromosomal abnormalities usually result
from an error that occurs when an egg or sperm cell develops. It is not known why these errors occur. As far as we know, nothing that a parent does or doesnt do before or during pregnancy can cause a chromosomal abnormality in his or her child.

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 Egg

and sperm cells each contain 23 chromosomes. When they join together, they form a fertilized egg with 46 chromosomes. But sometimes something goes wrong before fertilization. An egg or sperm cell may divide incorrectly, resulting in an egg or sperm cell with too many or too few chromosomes.

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 When

this cell with the wrong number of chromosomes joins with a normal egg or sperm cell, the resulting embryo has a chromosomal abnormality. A common type of chromosomal abnormality is called a trisomy. This means that an individual has three copies of a specific chromosome, instead of two. For example, individuals with Down syndrome generally have three copies of chromosome 21 (though a small number of cases are caused by chromosomal rearrangements).
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What are some common chromosomal abnormalities?

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Down Syndrome
This

is one of the most common chromosomal abnormalities, affecting about 1 in 800 babies. Individuals withdown syndrome have varying degrees of intellectual disability, characteristic facial features and, often, heart defects and other problems.

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outlook for children with Down syndrome is far brighter than it once was. Most have intellectual disabilities in the mild to moderate range. With early intervention and special education, many learn to read and write and participate in diverse childhood activities. The risk of Down syndrome and other trisomies increases with the mothers age. The risk of having a baby with Down syndrome is about: 1 in 1,300 at age 25 1 in 1,000 at age 30 1 in 400 at age 35 7/28/12

The

Trisomies 13 and 18
These

trisomies usually are more severe than Down syndrome, but fortunately less common. About 1 in 16,000 babies is born with trisomy 13 (also called Patau syndrome), and about 1 in 5,000 with trisomy 18 (also called Edwards syndrome). Babies with trisomies 13 or 18 generally have severeintellectual disabilitiesand many physical birth defects. Most affected babies die before their first birthday.

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Common Sex Chromosome Abnormalities

The

last pair of chromosomes are the sex chromosomes, called X and Y Generally, . females have two X chromosomes, and males have one X chromosome and one Y chromosome. Sex chromosome abnormalities may cause infertility, growth abnormalities, and, in some cases, behavioral and learning problems. However, most affected individuals live fairly normal lives.

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Turner Syndrome

This abnormality affects about 1 in 2,500 girls. Girls with Turner syndrome have one X chromosome and are missing all or part of the other X chromosome. They usually are infertile and do not undergo normal puberty changes unless they are treated with sex hormones. Affected girls are short, though treatment with growth hormone can help increase height. Some have other health problems, including heart and kidney defects. Girls with Turner syndrome generally have normal intelligence, though some have learning difficulties, particularly with mathematics and spatial concepts.

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Triple X
About

1 in 1,000 females has an extra X chromosome. Affected girls tend to be tall. They usually have no physical birth defects, experience normal puberty and are fertile. Affected girls usually have normal intelligence, though many have learning problems. Because these girls are healthy and have a normal appearance, their parents often dont know they have a chromosomal abnormality. Some parents may learn that their daughter has this abnormality if they have prenatal testing (with amniocentesis or CVS). 7/28/12

Klinefelter Syndrome
This

abnormality affects about 1 in 500 to 1,000 boys. Boys with Klinefelter syndrome have two, or occasionally more, X chromosomes along with their Y chromosome. Affected boys usually have normal intelligence, though many have learning problems. As adults, they produce lower-than-normal amounts of the male hormone testosterone (and often are treated with this hormone) and are infertile.

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XYY
About

1 in 1,000 males is born with one or more extra Y chromosomes. Affected males are sometimes taller than average, have normal sexual development and are fertile. Most have normal intelligence, though some have learning, behavioral and speech/language problems. As with triple X females, many affected males and their families dont know they have a chromosomal abnormality unless it is diagnosed with prenatal testing.
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Less Common Chromosomal Abnormalities

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Deletions
A

small section of a chromosome is missing.

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Microdeletions
An

extremely small amount of a chromosome is missing, possibly only a single gene.

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Translocations: A section of a chromosome is attached to another chromosome. Inversions:A section of chromosome is snipped out and reinserted upside down. Duplications:A section of a chromosome is duplicated, so there is extra genetic material. Ring chromosome:Material is deleted at both ends of a chromosome, and the new ends join together to form a ring.

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Some uncommon disorders can be caused by small chromosomal deletions

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Cri-du-chat (cat cry) syndrome (deletion on chromosome 5)a cat-like, high Affected children have

pitched cry during infancy,intellectual disabilitiesand physical abnormalities. About 1 in 20,000 to 50,000 babies is born with this disorder.

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Prader-Willi syndrome (deletion on chromosome 15) Affected children usually haveintellectual

disabilitiesor learning disabilities, behavioral problems and short stature. They also may develop extreme obesity. About 1 in 10,000 to 25,000 babies is affected.

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22q11 deletion syndrome (deletion on chromosome 22) 1 in 4,000 babies is born with About

deletions in a specific region of chromosome 22. These deletions cause a variety of problems that can include heart defects, cleft lip/palate, immune system abnormalities, characteristic facial features and learning disabilities. Certain combinations of these features are sometimes called DiGeorge or velocardiofacial syndrome. Individuals with this disorder have a 50-percent chance of passing the chromosomal abnormality on to their offspring with each pregnancy. 7/28/12

Wolf-Hirschhorn syndrome (deletion on chromosome 4) disorder is characterized by intellectual This

disabilities, heart defects, poor muscle tone, seizures and other problems. It affects about 1 in 50,000 babies.

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