Words and Meanings

SAIFUL IQBAL AMIR NAZRIN

 Hyponymy is the relationship between hyponyms. Hyponyms is the word the meaning of which may be said to be included in that of another word. For example: -Rose is a hyponym of flower -Spinster is a hyponym of woman

 Synonyms are words which sound different, but have the same or nearly the same meanings and therefore may often be used interchangeably.

An example of synonyms is the words cat and feline. Each describes any member of the family Fieldale. Similarly, if we talk about a long time or an extended time, long, and extended become synonyms.

More examples of English synonyms are: -Baby and infant (noun) -Student and pupil (noun) -Pretty and attractive (adjective) -Sick and ill (adjective) -Interesting and fascinating (adjective) -Quickly and speedily (adverb)

 A word having a meaning opposite to that of another word. Antonym is the antonym of synonym. Antonymy is the sense relation that exists between words which are opposite in meaning. Adjective: antonymous.

 Antonyms are words or expression which are opposite in meaning or two words that express opposing concepts. For example: -Clever and stupid -High and low

-Complementary pairs -Gradable pairs (marked and unmarked) -Relational opposites

Complementary pairs mean that these antonyms words have an exact and un-debatable opposite in some dimension. For example: Alive and dead. They are complementary in that not alive = dead and not dead = alive. The negative of one word is synonymous with the other.

 With gradable pairs the negative of one word is not synonymous with the other. For example: Not happy is not necessarily equal to sad as someone who is not happy is not necessarily sad. It is also true of gradable antonyms that more of one is less of another. In other words, more bigness is less smallness, wider is less narrow, a taller is less short.

 Another characteristic of many pairs of gradable antonyms is that one is marked and the other unmarked. The one which is more commonly used by the speakers of that language is the unmarked. In English the unmarked member of the gradable pairs such as high and low, tall and short is the one used in questions of degree.

 Notice that the meaning of these adjectives and some other similar ones is relational. Thus if A is taller than B, then B is shorter than A. The fact that these adjectives provide no informational about absolute size has provided a vehicle for humour.

 Homonyms are different words which are pronounced the same, but have different meanings. When the same word has different meanings, we call it polysemous. Homonyms and polysemy may create ambiguity. An expression is ambiguous if more than one meaning can be assigned to it.

Common examples of Homophones

Air heir Eye I Bare Bear Bear Buy By Cell Sell Dear Deer Die Dye Fair Fare Hair Hare

 Using I Before E Use i before e, except after c, or when sounded as "a" as in "neighbour" and "weigh." EXAMPLES: believe, chief, piece, and thief; deceive, receive, weigh, and freight COMMON EXCEPTIONS: efficient, weird, height, neither, ancient, caffeine, foreign

 Drop the final e before a suffix beginning with a vowel (a, e, i, o, u) but not before a suffix beginning with a consonant. EXAMPLES: ride + ing = riding guide + ance = guidance hope + ing = hoping entire + ly = entirely like + ness = likeness arrange + ment = arrangement COMMON EXCEPTIONS: truly, noticeable

 Change a final y to i before a suffix, unless the suffix begins with i. EXAMPLES: defy + ance = defiance party + es = parties pity + ful = pitiful try + es = tries try + ing = trying copy + ing = copying occupy + ing = occupying COMMON EXCEPTIONS: journeying, memorize

 Double a final single consonant before a suffix beginning with a vowel when both of these conditions exist: (a) a single vowel precedes the consonant; (b) the consonant ends an accented syllable or a onesyllable word. EXAMPLES: stop + ing = stopping admit + ed = admitted occur + ence = occurrence stoop + ing = stooping benefit + ed = benefited delight + ful = delightful

 A word element--a prefix, suffix, or infix--that can be attached to a base or root to form a new word. Affixes are bound morphemes. Adjectives: affixable and affixal.

The positional based affixes may include; 1. Prefix 2. Suffix 3. Infix 4. Circumfix 5. Interfix 6. Suprafix

2.

Prefixation

A prefix is an affix which is placed before the stem of a word Place in front of a root or stem in other to refine or modify its meaning.

Examples of Prefixes:
unhappy : un is a negative or antonymic prefix. Preview : pre is a prefix, with the sense of before redo, review. : re is a prefix meaning again.

3. Suffixation.
Defined as the addition of affixes to the end of a root or stem. to refine, modify or change its meaning is placed after the stem of a word

 Common examples are case endings, which indicate the grammatical case of nouns or adjectives, and verb endings, which form the conjugation of verbs. They can alter the form of the words to which they are fixed. In IndoEuropean studies, a distinction is made between suffixes and endings (see Proto-Indo-European root).Suffixes can carry grammatical information (inflectional suffixes). (Derivational suffixes). An inflectional suffix is sometimes called a desinence

 Some examples: Girls, where the suffix s marks the plural. He makes, where suffix s marks the third person singular present tense. It closed, where the suffix ed marks the past tense.

 Examples are in this format: suffix, meaning and examples. -agogy leading pedagogy , demagogy -archy rule, leadership gynarchy , anarchy -cele, -coele, -coel body cavity mucocoel or mucocoele -ly -like, having the attributes of; In modern English, primarily changes adjectives to adverbs; also changes some nouns to adjectives and some (past-tense) verbs to adverbs quick(adj) > quickly(adv), state(n) > stately(adj), abashed(v) > abashedly(adv)

Categories of affixes Affix Prefix Suffix/Postfix un-do look-ing Example prefix-stem stem-suffix Schema Description Appears at the front of a stem Appears at the back of a stem Appears within a stem common in BorneoPhilippines languages

Infix

Minneflippin'sota

stinfixem

Circumfix

ascattered

circumfixstemcircumfix

One portion appears at the front of a stem, and the other at the rear

Interfix

speed-o-meter

stema-interfix-stemb

Links two stems together in a compound

Duplifix

teeny~weeny

stem~duplifix

Incorporates a reduplicated portion of a stem (may occur in front, at the rear, or within the stem)

Transfix

Maltese: kiteb "he wrote" (compare root ktb "write")

stransfixtetransfixm

A discontinuous affix that interleaves within a discontinuous stem

Simulfix

mouse mice

Changes a segment of a stem

Suprafix

produce (noun) produce (verb)

Changes a suprasegmental phoneme of a stem

Disfix

Alabama: tipli "break up" (compare root tipasli "break")

stm

The elision of a portion of a stem

Collocation

A collocation

is a word or phrase that naturally and frequently occurs before, after, or very near the target vocabulary item..

For example the word waste, which means to use unwisely.

In theory, any noun could follow the word waste, but the most common collocations for waste are money, recourses, time, or opportunity

Collocation
Collocation is a word that frequently goes together For example

Collocation example verb + noun -- take a vacation adjective + noun -- light rain adverb + verb -- completely forget adverb + adjective -- totally awesome adjective + preposition -- tired of ... noun + noun -- a business deal

Here are some examples of longer collocations based on 'll: I'll give you a call. I'll be in touch. I'll get back to you as soon as I can. I'll be back in a minute. I'll see what I can do. Collocations