Week 1

Introduction
Week 1
This week Learning Outlines
Definition of fluid mechanics
Concept of shear stress
Properties of fluid
Density and specific gravity
Specific weight
Viscosity
Surface tension
Pressure
Units and conversion
Types of fluid
Learning Outcome
At the end of the chapter, you should be able to:

1. Define the term fluid
2. Differentiate between gas and liquid.
3. Determine various types of fluid
4. Determine properties of fluid
5. Solve fluid related problems using different unit
conversions

substance that lack the
ability to resist deformation
forces
FLUID MECHANICS
A study of forces and
motions
FLUID MECHANICS

A study of fluid either at rest (fluid statics) or
in motion (fluid dynamics)
and the subsequent effects of the fluid on the
boundaries
FLUID MECHANICS
Fluid Mechanics in our life
Fluid Mechanics in our life
Significance?
Chemical
Engineering
Environmental
Engineering
Aerodynamics
Medical
Liquid and gas flow in pipeline
Design of vessel
Design of water filter
Design of metering equipment
Significance?
Chemical
Engineering
Environmental
Engineering
Aerodynamics
Medical
Formation of tornado, hurricane
Temperature profile of continent
Flow of plume (smoke) at different time
River hydraulic
Significance?
Chemical
Engineering
Environmental
Engineering
Aerodynamics
Medical
Design of vehicle
Design of smoke stack
Design of buildings
Significance?
Chemical
Engineering
Environmental
Engineering
Aerodynamics
Medical
Blood flow system
Design of medical equipment
Digestion of food in intestine
Respiration system
What is stress?

The concept of
stress and shear stress
Area
Force
Stress =
Types of stress
10 kg
10 kg
Rope holding
up a weight
A column holding
up a weight
10 kg
Glue (at the wall)
holding up a weight
Tensile stress Compressive stress
Stress that tends to
make one surface being
sliced or slide parallel
to another surface
Stress that tends
to pull things apart
Stress that tends to
crush the column
Shear stress
p/s: If you have water flowing in a channel, shear stress describes the force of water that is trying to
drag the channel surface downstream with it.
Area
force Shear
stress, Shear = t
Shear force
Shear force is a force which acts tangentially to a
surface and causes the surface to deform
A A B B
D
C
F
F
x
y
Shear strain
Deformation is measured by the angle
= shear strain (or angular displacement)
Fluid stress is proportional to strain rate.
increases in proportion to the applied force, F.
A A B B
D
C
F
x
y

Newtons law of viscosity
Assume , | o of rate t
A A B B
D
C
F
F
x
y
E
x
y

= x/y
Rate of = x/yt = (x/t)y = V/y
V = x/t
= velocity of particle at E
so t o V/y
t = V/y
t = dV/dy
= dynamic viscosity
3 types of matter

Solid Liquid Gas
Permanently
resist
deformation
Lack the ability to resist a deformation
force
Differences between solids and fluids
MZA@UTPChemEluidMech
Solid
permanently resist large shear force (provided the
elastic limit not exceeded)
When subjected to shear force move short
distance
Set up internal shear force, then stop moving

t
Initial Force applied Force removed
Liquid and gas
Lack the ability to resist deformation
Deforms continuously under the action of shearing
forces, no matter how small.
Keep on moving for as long as the force is applied
If force is removed, fluid wont be the same as
initial state
Initial Force applied
Shear stress develops when fluid in motion
i.e. particles move relative to each
other that they have different
velocities

u
a

u
b

u
c

If velocity of fluid is the same at every point, condition
of no shear stress
(fluid at rest relative to each other)

Fluid at rest no shear stress

u
a

u
a

u
a

Classification of fluid flows
Viscous vs inviscid flow
Internal vs external flow
Compressible vs incompressible flow
Laminar vs turbulent flow
Natural vs forced flow
Steady vs unsteady flow
MZA@UTPChemEFluidMech
Viscosity
Newtons law of viscosity
Shear stress is linearly proportional to the velocity gradient

dy
dV
t =
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
dy
dV
t

= f (types of fluid, time and T)
Types of fluids

Newtonian fluids
Fluids that obey Newtons law of viscosity

Non-Newtonian fluids
Fluids that do not obey Newtons law of viscosity
varies with types of fluid
Newtonian fluids

t is proportional to dV/dy
All gases
All liquids having simple
chemical formula
E.g: H
2
O, CH
3
OH, C
6
H
6

Most dilute solution of
simple molecules in water or
organic solvents
Metal ion solution, sugar
in water
Newtonian fluids
Straight line through origin
Non-Newtonian fluids

Shear stress is a
function of the velocity
gradient.
(viscosity is not a
constant)
Bingham fluids
Resist small shear stress.
Flow easily under larger
shear stress
(Force must be given in
order to move the fluid)
Pseudoplastic
fluids
Shear thinning fluids
viscosity decreases with
increasing rate of shear
stress
as dV/dy
A shear thinning fluid decreases in
viscosity with increasing shear rate
Dilatant fluids
Shear thickening fluids
as dV/dy
E.g. Starch suspension,
printing ink
varies with time
Viscosity is time independent
All Newtonian fluids are
time independent
Most of non-Newtonian fluids
are time dependent
Rheopectic
Viscosity increases with time

varies with time
A rheopectic fluid
increases in viscosity
over time at a constant
shear rate.
Thixotropic
Viscosity decreases with time

varies with time
A thixotropic fluid
decreases in viscosity
over time at a constant
shear rate.
Non-newtonian fluid classification
Time-dependent
viscosity
Rheopectic
Viscosity increases with
duration of stress
Lubricants
Thixotropic
Viscosity decreases with
duration of stress
Clays, honey
Shear-stress-dependent
viscosity
Dilatant
(Shear thickening)
Viscosity increases with
increased stress
Corn starch, printing
inks
Pseudoplastic
(Shear thinning)
Viscosity decreases with
increased (stress
Blood, ketchup
Does not exhibit any
shear rate (no flow) until
a certain stress is
achieved
Bingham Viscosity constant Toothpaste, jellies
Unit
Pas / N/m
2
s / kg/m-s(SI)
Ibm/ft-s (BG)
Poise centipoise (cP)
For water, = 1 cP (at 20
o
C)

Unit of
T
b
A ln ln
equation) (Andrade Ae
T
b
+ =
=
equation) s d' (Sutherlan
S T
S T

T
T
law) (power
T
T
o
2
3
o o
n
o o
+
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
varies with T
Viscosity of gases and
vapor

Gas Coordinate
X Y
Air 11.0 20.0
CO
2
9.5 18.7
H
2
11.2 12.4
Viscosity of liquid

Liquid Coordinate
X Y
Water 10.2 10.4
Benzene 12.5 10.9
Ethanol (100%) 10.5 13.8
Ethanol (40%) 6.5 16.6
Kinematic Viscosity
Unit
m
2
/s (SI)
ft
2
/s (BG)

Common unit: centistoke (cSt)

= v
s
ft
10 08 . 1
s
m
10
cm
g
1
cP 1
cSt 1
2
5
2
6 -
3
= = =
Density
Units : kg/m
3
(SI) or Ib
m
/ft
3
(BG)
Density of liquids are slightly affected by pressure and
temperature
Density of gases are strongly influenced by pressure
and temperature

V
m
volume
mass
= =
Density
Density of water at different temperatures:
Temperature (
o
C) (kg/m
3
)
0 999.0
4 1000.0
10 999.7
20 998.2
30 995.7
Density
Density of gases can be calculated through ideal gas
equation:
PV = nRT
PV = (m/M)RT
m/V = PM/RT

where R = gas constant = 8.314 m
3
Pa/mol K

PM/RT =
Specific volume
Specific volume, u

Unit: m
3
/kg (SI) or ft
3
/Ibm (BG)

m
V 1
= =

Specific weight
Specific weight,

Unit: N/m
3
(SI) or Ibf/ft
3
(BG)

Related to density through:

where g = local gravitational acceleration

V
W
volume
weight
= =
= g
Specific gravity
Specific gravity, SG of liquid and solid

Throughout the course, specific gravity referred to
water at 4
o
C is used

Unit: Dimensionless
SG
P and T specified at water
substance

=
Specific gravity
Specific gravity, SG of gas

For ideal gas;

Where: M = molar mass of the gas

M
M
SG
air
gas
ideal gas,
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
P and T same at
air
gas
gas
SG
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
Class Example 1
A reservoir of carbon tetrachloride (CCl
4
) has a
mass of 500 kg and a volume of 0.315 m
3
.
Determine the CCl
4
:
a) Weight
b) Density
c) Specific weight
d) Specific volume
e) Specific gravity

Take gravitational acceleration, g = 9.81 m/s
2

Solution
a) Weight, W= mg
= (500)(9.81)
= 4905 N = 4.905 kN

b) Density, =

c) Specific weight, =
3
m
kg
1587
0.315
500
V
m
= =
3
m
kN
15.57
0.315
4905
V
W
= =
d) Specific volume,

e) Specific gravity, SG
kg
m
10 6.301
1587
1 1

3
4 -
= = =
59 1
1000
1587
O H
CCl
2
4
. = = =
Class Example 2
The volume of a rock is found to be 0.00015 m
3
. If the
specific gravity of the rock is 2.60, determine its mass
and weight.
Solution

S.G

rock
= 2600 kg/m
3

Mass, m = V = (2600)(0.00015) = 0.39 kg

Weight, W = mg = (0.39)(9.81) = 3.826 N
60 2
1000
rock
O H
rock
2
. = = =

Class Example 3
Nitrogen gas occupies a volume of 100 L at 120 kPa
and 100
o
C. Determine its specific volume and specific
weight.
Solution
V = 100 L = 100 10
-3
m
3

( )
3
3
m
kg
1.08
K 273 100
kmol
kg
28
K kmol
m kPa
8.314
kPa 120
RT
P

RT P
=
+
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =
=
Specific volume,

Specific weight, = g = (1.08)(9.81) = 10.6 N/m
3

kg
m
923 0
1.08
1 1

3
. = = =
Unit
m
2
/s (SI), ft
2
/s (BG)
Common unit: centistoke (cSt)

= v
Units : kg/m
3
(SI) or Ib
m
/ft
3
(BG)

V
m
volume
mass
= =
dy
dV
t =
PM/RT =
Unit: m
3
/kg (SI) or ft
3
/Ibm (BG)

m
V 1
= =

Unit: N/m
3
(SI) or Ibf/ft
3
(BG)

V
W
volume
weight
= =
= g
SG
P and T specified at water
substance

=

M
M
SG
air
gas
ideal gas,
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
P and T same at
air
gas
gas
SG
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
Surface tension
An effect within the surface layer of a liquid that causes
that layer to behave as elastic sheet.
What is surface tension?
What causes surface tension?
The intermolecular forces between the liquid molecules
liquid
A
B
Surface Tension
In the bulk of liquid, A is pulled
equally in all directions by
neighboring liquid molecules,
resulting in a net force of zero

At the surface of the liquid, B is
pulled inwards by other
molecules deeper inside the
liquid which can be balanced
only by the resistance of the
liquid to compression. This
inward pull tends to diminish the
surface area, and in this respect
a liquid surface resembles a
stretched elastic membrane.
Effects in everyday life
Water beading on flowers Insects walking on water
Capillarity
The ability of a
substance to draw
another substance into it
Depends on
the relative
magnitudes of the
cohesion of the liquid
and the adhesion of
the liquid to the walls
of the containing
vessel
Application: Capillarity
Liquids rise in tubes if
they wet (adhesion >
cohesion)

Liquids fall in tubes if
they do not wet
(cohesion > adhesion).
Capillarity
u is zero Perfect wetting
(liquid spreads as a thin film over the surface of the solid)
E.g.:water on clean metal

u = 180
o
Case of no wetting
E.g.: Mercury on clean glass

Capillarity
Capillary rise, h can be
calculated using the
equation:

h = height of capillary rise
o = surface tension
u = contact angle
= specific weight

area sectional Cross
perimeter Wetted cos
h =

Capillarity
For circular tube:

d = diameter of the tube
r = radius of the tube
r
cos

d
cos

d
d cos
h
2

2

=
=
=
t
t
Capillarity
Capillarity is
important when
using tubes
smaller than about
3/8 inch (10 mm)
in diameter.

For tube diameters
larger than 1 in
(12 mm), capillary
effects are
negligible.
Outline
Pressure and Temperature
Units and Conversion
Terminology
Gauge pressure, P
g
P of a system is measured by a gauge, which excludes P
atm
Its measured relative to P
atm

Absolute pressure, P
abs

Total P exerted on a system
P
abs
= P
atm
+ P
g

Its measured relative to high vacuum (0 psia)

0 psia
14.7 psia
114.7 psia
0 psig
100 psig
1 atmosphere
vacuum range
Atmospheric pressure
Atmospheric pressure, Patm
P exerted on the surface of a body by a column of air in an atmosphere
Standard Patm (at sea level) = 1 atm = 101.325 kPa = 760 mmHg

Relationships

P
abs
= P
atm
+ P
gage

P
abs
= P
atm
P
vac

1 atm = 0 gage
101.3 kPa = 0 gage

Temperature
Temperature scales:
Celcius (C)
Kelvin (K)
Fahrenheit (F)
Rankine (R)
T(K) = T(C) + 273.15
T(R) = T(F) + 460
Units
SI unit (International unit)
English system (foot-pound-second, BG)
Conversion
Length: 1 m = 3.281 ft
1 ft = 0.3048 m

Mass: 1 kg = 2.2046 Ibm
1 Ibm = 0.45359 kg

Pressure 1 atm = 101.3 kPa
= 14.696 psi
Class Example 4
A steel cylinder has a diameter of 5 cm and a length
of 20 cm. It moves at a velocity of 0.5 m/s inside a
tube of slightly larger diameter. Determine the
clearance between the cylinder and the tube, if
castor oil film of constant thickness is filled between
the cylinder and the tube.

Data: at room temperature
SG
steel
= 7.85

castor oil
= 0.287 kg/ms

Solution
Clearance, dy
dy
dV
A
F
= =
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) N 30 9.81 0.2 0.05
4
1000 7.85 F
g V mg W F
2
=
|
.
|
\
|
=
= = =
( )
( )( )( )
mm 15 0
30
5 0 2 0 05 0
287 0
F
dV A
dy .
. . .
. =
t
= =
dy
Class Example 5
Determine the capillary rise of water at 10
o
C in a tube
if the tube diameter is 1 mm.
What will happen if the tube diameter increases by
50%?

Data: o
water @ 10oC
= 0.00742 N/m
Solution
( )
( )( ) ( )
( )
( )( ) ( )
mm 10 02 . 2
1.5 0.0005 9.81 1000
0 cos 0.00742 2
h
50% by increases diameter tube if
mm 10 03 . 3
0.0005 9.81 1000
0 cos 0.00742 2
h
3 -
3 -
=
=
= =

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