MUSCLE HISTOLOGY

Functions of muscle tissue

Movement Maintenance of posture Joint stabilization Heat generation

Special functional characteristics of muscle

Contractility
Only one action: to shorten Shortening generates pulling force

Excitability
Nerve fibers cause electrical impulse to travel

Extensibility
Stretch with contraction of an opposing muscle

Elasticity
Recoils passively after being stretched

Types of Muscle Tissue

Skeletal muscle

Cardiac muscle

Smooth muscle

Types of Muscle Tissue

Skeletal
Attach to and move skeleton 40% of body weight Fibers = multinucleate cells (embryonic cells fuse) Cells with obvious striations Contractions are voluntary

Cardiac: only in the wall of

the heart Cells are striated Contractions are involuntary (not voluntary)

Smooth: walls of hollow organs

Lack striations Contractions are involuntary (not voluntary)

Similarities
Their cells are called fibers because

they are elongated Contraction depends on myofilaments

Actin Myosin

Plasma membrane is called

sarcolemma
Sarcos = flesh Lemma = sheath

Skeletal muscle
Epimysium: surrounds whole muscle

Perimysium is around fascicle

Endomysium is around each muscle fiber

 Each muscle: one nerve, one artery, one vein

Branch repeatedly

Skeletal Muscle

Attachments

One bone to another Cross at least one movable joint Origin: the less movable

attachment Insertion: is pulled toward the origin Usually one bone moves while the other remains fixed In muscles of the limb, origin lies proximal to the insertion

Attachments
Many muscles span two or more joints Direct or fleshy attachments
attach directly to bone
Called biarticular or multijoint muscles Cause movements at two joints

Attachments so short that muscle appears to

Indirect: connective tissue extends well

beyond the muscle

Tendon: cordlike (most muscles have

tendons) Aponeurosis: flat sheet Raised bone markings where tendons meet bones
Tubercles, trochanters, crests, etc.

Skeletal muscle
Fibers (each is one cell) have striations Myofibrils are organelles of the cell: these are made up of filaments Sarcomere
Basic unit of contraction Myofibrils are long rows of repeating sarcomeres Boundaries: Z discs (or lines)

Myofibrils
Made of three types of filaments (or

myofilaments):
Thick (myosin)
Thin (actin) Elastic (titin)

titin_____

______actin _____________myosin

 Sarcoplasmic reticulum (smooth ER)

Tubules surround myofibrils Cross-channels called terminal cisternae Store Ca++ and release when muscle stimulated to contract To thin filaments triggering sliding filament mechanism of

contraction T tubules are continuous with sarcolemma, therefore whole muscle contracts simultaneously

Neuromuscular Junction
Motor neurons innervate muscle fibers Motor end plate is where they meet Neurotransmitters are released by nerve signal: this initiates calcium ion release and muscle contraction

Motor Unit: a motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates (these all contract together) Average is 150, but range is four to several hundred muscle fibers in a motor unit The finer the movement, the fewer muscle fibers /motor unit The fibers are spread throughout the muscle, so stimulation of a single motor unit causes a weak contraction of the entire muscle

Sliding Filament Model

__relaxed sarcomere__ _partly contracted_

fully contracted

Sarcomere shortens because actin pulled towards its middle by myosin cross bridges
Titin resists overstretching

A band constant because it is caused by myosin, which doesnt change length

EM (electron microscope): parts of 2 myofibrils

Types of skeletal muscle fibers

to produce ATP

Fast, slow and intermediate Whether or not they predominantly use oxygen
Oxidative aerobic (use oxygen) Glycolytic make ATP by glycolysis (break down of

sugars without oxygen=anaerobic)

Fast fibers: white fibers large,

predominantly anaerobic, fatigue rapidly (rely on glycogen reserves); most of the skeletal muscle fibers are fast Slow fibers: red fibers half the diameter, 3X slower, but can continue contracting; aerobic, more mitochondria, myoglobin Intermediate: in between

A skeletal muscle contracts when its motor units are stimulated Amount of tension depends on
1. the frequency of stimulation 2. the number of motor units involved

Single, momentary contraction is called a muscle twitch All or none principle: each muscle fiber either contracts completely or not at all Amount of force: depends on how many motor units are activated Muscle tone

Even at rest, some motor units are active: tense the muscle even though not causing movement:

 Muscle hypertrophy

Weight training (repeated intense workouts): increases

Mitochondria Actin and myosin protein Myofilaments containing these contractile proteins The myofibril organelles these myofilaments form

diameter and strength of fast muscle fibers by increasing production of

Fibers enlarge (hypertrophy) as number and size of myofibrils

increase [Muscle fibers (=muscle cells) dont increase in number but increase in diameter producing large muscles]

Endurance training (aerobic): doesnt produce

hypertrophy

Muscle atrophy: loss of tone and mass from lack of

stimulation

Muscle becomes smaller and weaker

Note on terminology: in general, increased size is hypertrophy; increased number of cells is hyperplasia

Intercalated disc__________

Cardiac muscle
Bundles form thick

myocardium Cardiac muscle cells are single cells (not called fibers) Cells branch Cells join at intercalated discs 1-2 nuclei in center Here fiber = long row of joined cardiac muscle cells Inherent rhythmicity: (muscle cells beat separately without any stimulation)

Smooth muscle

Muscles are spindle-shaped cells One central nucleus Grouped into sheets: often running perpendicular to each other Peristalsis No striations (no sarcomeres) Contractions are slow, sustained and resistant to fatigue Does not always require a nervous signal: can be stimulated by stretching or hormones

THE NERVOUS TISSUE

The Nervous system has three major functions:

Sensory monitors internal & external environment through presence of receptors

Integration interpretation of sensory information (information processing); complex (higher order) functions
Motor response to information processed through stimulation of effectors muscle contraction glandular secretion

General Organization of the nervous system

Two Anatomical Divisions Central nervous system (CNS)

Brain Spinal cord All the neural tissue outside CNS Afferent division (sensory input) Efferent division (motor output) Somatic nervous system Autonomic nervous system

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

General Organization of the nervous system

Brain & spinal cord

Histology of neural tissue

Two types of neural cells in the nervous system: Neurons - For processing, transfer, and storage of information Neuroglia For support, regulation & protection of neurons

Neuroglia (glial cells)

CNS neuroglia: astrocytes oligodendrocytes microglia ependymal cells PNS neuroglia:

Schwann cells (neurolemmocytes)

satellite cells

Astrocytes create supportive framework for neurons create blood-brain barrier monitor & regulate interstitial fluid surrounding neurons secrete chemicals for embryological neuron formation stimulate the formation of scar tissue secondary to CNS injury

Oligodendrocytes create myelin sheath around axons of neurons in the CNS. Myelinated axons transmit impulses faster than unmyelinated axons

Microglia brain macrophages phagocytize cellular wastes & pathogens

Ependymal cells line ventricles of brain & central canal of spinal cord produce, monitor & help circulate CSF (cerebrospinal fluid)

Schwann cells surround all axons of neurons in the PNS creating a neurilemma around them. Neurilemma allows for potential regeneration of damaged axons creates myelin sheath around most axons of PNS

Satellite cells

support groups of cell bodies of neurons within ganglia of the PNS

Neuron structure

Most axons of the nervous system are surrounded by a myelin sheath (myelinated axons)
of Ranvier

The presence of myelin speeds up the transmission of action potentials along the axon Myelin will get laid down in segments (internodes) along the axon, leaving unmyelinated gaps known as nodes of Ranvier Regions of the nervous system containing groupings of myelinated axons make up the white matter

gray matter is mainly comprised of groups of neuron cell bodies, dendrites & synapses (connections between neurons)

Structural classification based on number of processes coming off of the cell body:

Classification of Neurons

Anaxonic neurons
no anatomical clues to determine axons from dendrites functions unknown

Multipolar neuron

multiple dendrites & single axon

most common type

Bipolar neuron two processes coming off cell body one dendrite & one axon only found in eye, ear & nose

Unipolar (pseudounipolar) neuron single process coming off cell body, giving rise to dendrites (at one end) & axon (making up rest of process)

Classification of neurons
Functional classification based on type of information & direction of information transmission: Sensory (afferent) neurons
transmit sensory information from receptors of PNS towards the CNS most sensory neurons are unipolar, a few are bipolar Motor (efferent) neurons

transmit motor information from the CNS to effectors (muscles/glands/adipose tissue) in the periphery of the body
all are multipolar Association (interneurons)

transmit information between neurons within the CNS; analyze inputs, coordinate outputs
are the most common type of neuron (20 billion) are all multipolar

Neural Tissue Organization

Anatomical structure of Nerves

Fig. 14.6

Cells of Bone Tissue

BONE TISSUE: SUPPORTIVE CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Extracellular Matrix 25% Water 25% Protein or organic matrix 95% Collagen Fibers 5% Chondroitin Sulfate 50% Crystalized Mineral Salts Hydroxyapatite (Calcium Phosphate) Other substances: Lead, Gold, Strontium, Plutonium, etc.

TWO KINDS OF BONE

Compact Bone Spongy Bone

Compact Bone
Compact bone is arranged in units called

osteons or Haversian systems. Osteons (Haversian canal) contain blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, nerves Surrounding this canal are concentric rings of osteocytes along with the calcified matrix. Osteons are aligned in the same direction along lines of stress. These lines can slowly change as the stresses on the bone changes.

Histology of Bone Tissue

Histology of Compact Bone

Osteon is concentric rings (lamellae) of calcified matrix

surrounding a vertically oriented blood vessel

Osteocytes are found in spaces called lacunae Osteocytes communicate through canaliculi filled with

extracellular fluid that connect one cell to the next cell

Interstitial lamellae represent older osteons that have

been partially removed during tissue remodeling

Compact Bone