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Bacteria were first discovered in the late 1600s by Antony van Leeuwenhoek, using the microscope he invented. The first recorded observation were of the bacteria found in the dental plaque of two old men who never cleaned their teeth.
Prokaryote Introduction
Prokaryotes are much more diverse in both habitat and metabolism than the eukaryotes. However, prokaryotes are not very diverse in body shape or size. Much of their classification into different species is done by examining their internal biochemistry and their DNA. Nearly all prokaryotes are singlecelled. Differentiation into different cell types almost never occurs in prokaryotes. Two major groups: the Eubacteria (sometimes just called Bacteria) and the Archaea (or Archaebacteria). Very different genetically.
Prokaryote Structure
Prokaryotes are simple cells. The DNA is loose in the cytoplasm there is no separate nucleus. The ribosomes are also in the cytoplasm. In prokaryotes, transcription (synthesis of RNA) and translation (synthesis of proteins) occurs simultaneously. The cell is surrounded by a membrane, but there are no internal membranes. Outside the membrane is a cell wall, and sometimes an outer capsule which can have structures projecting form it. Bacteria move using flagella: whip-like hairs similar to the flagellum of a sperm cell.
Bacterial Reproduction
Bacteria reproduce by the process of binary fission. The circular chromosome replicates its DNA. Then, the cell splits into 2 halves, each containing a single chromosome No spindle apparatus (as exists in eukaryotic mitosis and meiosis).
Growth of Bacteria
Under ideal conditions, bacteria grow very rapidly: some double in number every 20 minutes. Doubling in number: 1-2-4-816- is exponential growth. It starts off slowly, but once going the number of bacteria increase very rapidly Usually some nutrient runs short, or waste material builds up, and growth ceases. Eventually a die-off occurs, reducing the number of live bacteria.
Bacterial Morphology
Bacteria only take a few basic shapes, which are found in many different groups. Bacterial cells dont have internal cytoskeletons, so their shapes cant be very elaborate. Shape: coccus (spheres) and bacillus (rods). Spirillum (spiral) is less common. Aggregation of cells: single cells, pairs (diplo), chains (strepto), clusters (staphylo). Thus we have types such as diplococcus (pair of spheres) and streptobacillus (chain of rods).
Gram Stain
A major distinction between groups of bacteria is based on the Gram stain. In this method, bacteria are treated with the dye crystal violet, then washed. Often a second stain, safranin is applies to make the unstained bacteria visible. Gram stain causes bacteria with a lot of peptidoglycan and very little lipid in their cells walls to stain purple. The presence or absence of peptidoglycan is a fundamental biochemical difference between groups of bacteria
Metabolic Diversity
Bacteria show far more metabolic diversity than eukaryotes General classification, based on carbon (food) source and energy source. autotroph vs. heterotroph. Autotrophs make their own food from nonorganic sources (usually carbon dioxide). Heterotrophs use organic compounds from other organisms. phototroph vs. chemotroph. Phototrophs get their energy from sunlight. Chemotrophs get their energy from chemical compounds. Photoautotrophs get energy from sunlight and synthesize their own food from scratch, like green plants. Photoheterotrophs ( a rare category) get energy from sunlight but need organic compounds made by other organisms. Chemoautotrophs get energy from chemicals such as hydrogen gas, hydrogen sulfide or ammonia, and they use carbon dioxide as the raw material for their organic compounds. Chemoheterotrophs get both energy and organic compounds from other organisms. We are chemoheterotrophs.
Relationship to Oxygen
For more than half of Earths history, oxygen wasnt present in the atmosphere. Many bacteria evolved under anaerobic conditions. Classification: strict aerobes (need oxygen to survive) strict anaerobes (killed by oxygen) aerotolerant (dont use oxygen, but survive it). facultative anaerobes (use oxygen when it is present, but live anaerobically when oxygen is absent).
Spores
Some bacteria can form very tough spores, which are metabolically inactive and can survive a long time under very harsh conditions. Allegedly, some bacterial spores that were embedded in amber for 25 million years have been revived. Others, trapped in salt deposits for up to 250 million years, have also been revived. These experiments are viewed skeptically by many scientists. Extraordinary claims demand extraordinary proof Spores can also survive very high or low temperatures and high UV radiation for extended periods. Panspermia: the idea that life got started on Earth due to bacterial spores that drifted in from another solar system. (However, it still had to start somewhere!).
Archaea
Sometimes called Archaebacteria Genetically as different from Eubacteria as we are. One distinguishing characteristic: cell membranes dont contain fatty acids, but instead use branched molecules called isoprenes. Three main type: methanogens, extreme halophiles, extreme thermophiles.
Methanogens
Methanogens: convert hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane to generate energy anaerobically. Methanogens are obligate anaerobes: they are killed by oxygen. Methanogens digest cellulose in cow and termite guts. Each cow belches 50 liters of methane a day. A major greenhouse gas. Methanogens are also in swamps, wetlands, and garbage dumps.
Halophiles
Extreme halophiles. Grow in very salty conditions. Colorful bacteria in seawater evaporation beds, Great Salt Lake. Mostly aerobic metabolism. Some have a form of photosynthesis that uses bacteriorhodopsin, a pigment very similar to the rhodopsin pigment in our eyes. It is also called purple membrane protein
Thermophiles
Extreme thermophiles. Live at very high temperatures: ocean hydrothermal vents (up to 113o C, which would be boiling except for the high pressure under the ocean), hot springs in Yellowstone National Park. Use sulfur to generate energy just like we use oxygen: donate electrons to sulfur to create hydrogen sulfide. Some generate sulfuric acid insteadthey live at very low pHs.
Eubacteria
The most common types of bacteria Many categories: we will just look at a few of them. Enteric bacteria live in the digestive tracts of animals. Enterics are facultative anaerobes. Best known example: Escherichia coli (E. coli), found in the human gut and also used as a common experimental organism in the lab. Most E. coli strains are harmless, but a few pathogenic (disease-causing) strains exist, causing food poisoning. A common source is ground meat, but it gets on unwashed vegetables as well. Related enteric bacteria: Salmonella, Shigella. Cause food poisoning. Chickens carry Salmonella in their guts instead of E. coli.
Pyogenic Cocci
Pyogenic cocci. Pyogenic means pus-forming. These bacteria produce many of the worse infections. Staphylococcus aureus and Neisseria gonorrheae are 2 examples: Staphylococcus produces pneumonia, toxic shock syndrome, strep throat, meninginitis, and various skin diseases, such as impetigo. Neisseria produces gonorrhea, a common sexually transmitted disease Staphylococcus bacteria normally live on the skin and body cavities. Only occasionally cause disease. Some strains of Staphylococcus are resistant to all known antibiotics.
Endospore-forming Bacteria
Most of these are in the genus Bacillus (named after their normal shape). Their spores are very resistant to environmental conditions, and may survive millions of years before they revive. Anthrax is caused by a Bacillus species. Also is this family are the bacteria that cause botulism (a very bad form of food poisoning) and tetanus (lockjaw--the muscles go rigid).
Cyanobacteria
A major group of photosynthetic bacteria The oceans contain large amounts of cyanobacteria (called plankton), that produce much of Earths oxygen. Cyanobacteria are the source of chloroplasts in plant cells. They also have a symbiotic relationship in lichens: a fungus and a cyanobacteria provide each other with shelter and food from photosynthesis. Cyanobacteria form cell walls to fossilize among the oldest forms of life known. Some have cell differentiation: they form filaments in which some cells become heterocysts, heavily walled cells that perform nitrogen fixation for the other cells in the filament.