Presenting Data in Tables and Charts

Learning Objectives
In this chapter you learn:

To develop tables and charts for categorical data

To develop tables and charts for numerical data

The principles of properly presenting graphs

Organizing and Presenting Data Graphically

Data in raw form are usually not easy to use for decision making

Some type of organization is needed

Table Graph

Techniques reviewed here:

Bar charts and pie charts Ordered array Stem-and-leaf display Frequency distributions, histograms and polygons Cumulative distributions and ogives Contingency tables Scatter diagrams

Tables and Charts for Categorical Data

Categorical Data

Tabulating Data

Graphing Data

Summary Table

Bar Charts

Pie Charts

Pareto Diagram

The Summary Table

Summarize data by category Example: Current Investment Portfolio
Investment Amount Percentage Type (in thousands $) (%) Stocks Bonds CD Savings Total 46.5 32.0 15.5 16.0 110.0 42.27 29.09 14.09 14.55 100.0

(Variables are Categorical)

Bar and Pie Charts

Bar charts and Pie charts are often used for qualitative data (categories or nominal scale)
Height of bar or size of pie slice shows the frequency or percentage for each category

Bar Chart Example

Current Investment Portfolio
Investment Type Amount
(in thousands $)

Percentage
(%)

Stocks Bonds CD Savings Total

46.5 32.0 15.5 16.0 110.0

42.27 29.09 14.09 14.55 100.0

Savings CD Bonds Stocks 0

Investor's Portfolio

10

20

30

40

50

Amount in $1000's

Pie Chart Example

Current Investment Portfolio
Investment Type Amount
(in thousands $)

Percentage
(%)

Stocks Bonds CD Savings Total

46.5 32.0 15.5 16.0 110.0

42.27 29.09 14.09 14.55 100.0 CD 14%

Savings 15% Stocks 42%

Bonds 29%

Percentages are rounded to the nearest percent

Pareto Diagram

Used to portray categorical data (nominal scale) A bar chart, where categories are shown in descending order of frequency A cumulative polygon is often shown in the same graph

Used to separate the vital few from the trivial many

Tables and Charts for Numerical Data

Numerical Data

Ordered Array

Frequency Distributions and Cumulative Distributions

Stem-and-Leaf Display

Histogram

Polygon

Ogive

The Ordered Array

A sequence of data in rank order:
Shows range (min to max) Provides some signals about variability within the range May help identify outliers (unusual observations) If the data set is large, the ordered array is less useful

The Ordered Array

(continued)

Data in raw form (as collected): 24, 26, 24, 21, 27, 27, 30, 41, 32, 38

Data in ordered array from smallest to largest: 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 38, 41

Stem-and-Leaf Diagram

A simple way to see distribution details in a data set METHOD: Separate the sorted data series into leading digits (the stem) and the trailing digits (the leaves)

Example
Data in ordered array:
21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 38, 41

Here, use the 10s digit for the stem unit:

Stem Leaf

21 is shown as 38 is shown as

2 3

1 8

41 is shown as

Example
(continued)

Data in ordered array:

21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 38, 41

Completed stem-and-leaf diagram:

Stem Leaves

2 3 4

1 4 4 6 7 7 0 2 8 1

Using other stem units

Using the 100s digit as the stem:

Round off the 10s digit to form the leaves

Stem

Leaf

613 would become

776 would become ... 1224 becomes

6
7 12

1
8 2

Using other stem units

(continued)

Using the 100s digit as the stem:

The completed stem-and-leaf display:

Data:
613, 632, 658, 717, 722, 750, 776, 827, 841, 859, 863, 891, 894, 906, 928, 933, 955, 982, 1034, 1047,1056, 1140, 1169, 1224 Stem 6 7 8 Leaves 136 2258 346699

9
10 11 12

13368
356 47 2

Tabulating Numerical Data: Frequency Distributions

What is a Frequency Distribution?

A frequency distribution is a list or a table containing class groupings (ranges within which the data fall) ... and the corresponding frequencies with which data fall within each grouping or category

Why Use a Frequency Distribution?

It is a way to summarize numerical data It condenses the raw data into a more useful form... It allows for a quick visual interpretation of the data

Class Intervals and Class Boundaries

Each class grouping has the same width Determine the width of each interval by
range Width of interval number of desired class groupings

Usually at least 5 but no more than 15 groupings Class boundaries never overlap Round up the interval width to get desirable endpoints

Frequency Distribution Example

Example: A manufacturer of insulation randomly selects 20 winter days and records the daily high temperature
24, 35, 17, 21, 24, 37, 26, 46, 58, 30, 32, 13, 12, 38, 41, 43, 44, 27, 53, 27

Frequency Distribution Example

(continued)

Sort raw data in ascending order:

12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58

Find range: 58 - 12 = 46

Select number of classes: 5 (usually between 5 and 15)

Compute class interval (width): 10 (46/5 then round up) Determine class boundaries (limits): 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60 Compute class midpoints: 15, 25, 35, 45,
55

Count observations & assign to classes

Frequency Distribution Example

(continued)

Data in ordered array:

12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58

Class

Frequency

Relative Frequency

Percentage

10 but less than 20 20 but less than 30 30 but less than 40 40 but less than 50 50 but less than 60 Total

3 6 5 4 2 20

.15 .30 .25 .20 .10 1.00

15 30 25 20 10 100

Tabulating Numerical Data: Cumulative Frequency

Data in ordered array:
12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58

Class 10 but less than 20 20 but less than 30 30 but less than 40

Frequency Percentage 3 6 5 15 30 25

Cumulative Cumulative Frequency Percentage 3 9 14 15 45 70

40 but less than 50

50 but less than 60 Total

4
2 20

20
10 100

18
20

90
100

Graphing Numerical Data: The Histogram

A graph of the data in a frequency distribution is called a histogram

The class boundaries (or class midpoints) are shown on the horizontal axis the vertical axis is either frequency, relative frequency, or percentage

Bars of the appropriate heights are used to represent the number of observations within each class

Histogram Example
Class 10 but less than 20 20 but less than 30 30 but less than 40 40 but less than 50 50 but less than 60 Class Midpoint Frequency 15 25 35 45 55 3 6 5 4 2

Histogram : Daily High Tem perature 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 5 15 25 35 45 Class Midpoints 55 65

(No gaps between bars)

Frequency

Graphing Numerical Data: The Frequency Polygon

Class 10 but less than 20 20 but less than 30 30 but less than 40 40 but less than 50 50 but less than 60 Class Midpoint Frequency 15 25 35 45 55 3 6 5 4 2

Frequency Polygon: Daily High Temperature 7 6

Frequency

5 4 3 2 1 0 5 15 25 35 45 55 65

(In a percentage polygon the vertical axis would be defined to show the percentage of observations per class)

Class Midpoints

Graphing Cumulative Frequencies:

The Ogive (Cumulative % Polygon)
Class Less than 10 10 but less than 20 20 but less than 30 30 but less than 40 40 but less than 50 50 but less than 60 Lower Cumulative class boundary Percentage 0 10 20 30 40 50 0 15 45 70 90 100

Ogive: Daily High Temperature

Cumulative Percentage

100 80 60 40 20 0 10 10 20 20 30 30 40 40 50 50 60 60

Class Boundaries (Not Midpoints)

Tabulating and Graphing Multivariate Categorical Data

Contingency Table for Investment Choices ($1000s)

Investor A Investor B Investor C Total

Investment Category

Stocks Bonds CD Savings

46.5 32.0 15.5 16.0

55 44 20 28

27.5 19.0 13.5 7.0

129 95 49 51

Total

110.0

147

67.0

324

(Individual values could also be expressed as percentages of the overall total, percentages of the row totals, or percentages of the column totals)

Tabulating and Graphing Multivariate Categorical Data

(continued)

Side-by-side bar charts

C o m p arin g In vesto rs
S a vin g s CD B onds S toc k s 0 10 In ve s t o r A 20 30 In ve s t o r B 40 50 In ve s t o r C 60

Side-by-Side Chart Example

Sales by quarter for three sales territories:

East West North 1st Qtr 2nd Qtr 3rd Qtr 4th Qtr 20.4 27.4 59 20.4 30.6 38.6 34.6 31.6 45.9 46.9 45 43.9

60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1st Qtr 2nd Qtr 3rd Qtr 4th Qtr

East West North

Scatter Diagrams

Scatter Diagrams are used to examine possible relationships between two numerical variables
The Scatter Diagram: one variable is measured on the vertical axis and the other variable is measured on the horizontal axis

Scatter Diagram Example

Volume per day 23 24 26 Cost per day 131 120
250 200

Cost per Day vs. Production Volume

29
33 38 41

151
160 167 185

Cost per Day

140

150 100 50 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Volume per Day

42
50 55 60

170
188 195 200

Time Series Plot

A Time Series Plot is used to study patterns in the values of a variable over time
The Time Series Plot: one variable is measured on the vertical axis and the time period is measured on the horizontal axis

Scatter Diagram Example

Number of Franchises

Year

Number of Franchises, 1996-2004

120 100

1996
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

43
Number of Franchises

54 60 73 82 95 107

80 60 40 20 0 1994 1996 1998 2000 Year 2002 2004 2006

2003
2004

99
95