Chapter 1

Water resources and quality

Sources of water supply

1. 2. 3. Natural sources Surface water Ground water

Natural sources
Rain, snow, hail and sleet are precipitated upon the surface of the earth as meteorological water and may be considered as the original source of all the water supplied. Water, as source of drinking water, occurs as surface water and ground water. Three aspects should be considered in appraising water resources e.g., the quantity, the quality, and the reliability of available water.

Surface water

Surface water accumulates mainly as a result of direct runoff from precipitation (rain or snow). Precipitation that does not enter the ground through infiltration or is not returned to the atmosphere by evaporation, flows over the ground surface and is classified as direct runoff. Direct runoff is water that drains from saturated or impermeable surfaces, into stream channels, and then into natural or artificial storage sites (or into the ocean in coastal areas). The amount of available surface water depends largely upon rainfall. When rainfall is limited, the supply of surface water will vary considerably between wet and dry years. Surface water supplies may be further divided into river, lake, and reservoir supplies. Dams are constructed to create artificial storage. Canals or open channels can be constructed to convey surface water to the project sites. The water is also conveyed through pipes by gravity or pumping. In general, the surface sources are characterized by soft water, turbidity, suspended solids, some color and microbial contamination.

Ground water
Part of the precipitation that falls infiltrates the soil. This water replenishes the soil moisture, or is used by growing plants and returned to the atmosphere by transpiration. Water that drains downward (percolates) below the root zone finally reaches a level at which all the openings or voids in the earth's materials are filled with water. This zone is called the zone of saturation. The water in the zone of saturation is called the ground water. Ground waters are, generally, characterized by higher concentrations of dissolved solids, lower levels of colour, higher hardness (as compared with surface water), dissolved gasses and freedom from microbial contamination. A wells that penetrates the water table can be used to extract water from the ground basin. Ground water that flows naturally from the ground is called a Spring.

Surface and ground water quality characteristic

1. Can be divided into three types Physical Chemical Biological

Physical
a) i. ii. i. ii. iii. Suspended solid measures in mg/L Sources Inorganic compounds such as clay and sand Organic compounds such as plant fiber, human waste Effects Aesthetic Adsorption point/centre for chemicals and micro-organisms Health aspects

b) i. ii. i. ii. iii.

Turbidity - measured in NTU/FMU Sources Inorganic compounds such as clay and sand Organic compounds such as plant fiber, human waste Effects Aesthetic Adsorption point/centre for chemicals and micro-organisms Health aspects

c) i. ii. i. ii.

Odour and taste Sources Inorganic compounds such as minerals, metals, salts (all of them give taste to water but no odour) Organic compounds from petroleum and/or degradation of organic matters. Effects Aesthetic Health problems (reaction from sources and other chemicals such as chlorine (Cl)

d) i. ii. i. ii.

Temperature measured in oC or oF Sources Effect from ambience Industrial activities cooling system Effects Disturb biological activities such as microorganism and aquatic life Chemical properties such as degree of gas solubility, density and viscocity

Chemicals
a) Total dissolved solid (TDS) Solid left in water after the water is filtered and dried Sources i. Inorganic compounds - minerals, metals and gases ii. Organic compounds product from degradation of organic matters, organic gasses Effects i. Cause taste, colour and odour problems ii. Health aspects iii. Small amount of TDS water becomes corrosive to attain equilibrium

b) Alkalinity Definition : the quantity of ions in water to nuetralise acid or a measure of water strenght to nuetralise acid Main constituents are bicarbonates (HCO3-), carbonate (CO32-) and hydroxide (OH-) ions. Sources i. Mineral dissolved in water and air ii. Human activities such as detergent (in waste water), fertilizer. Effects i. Non pleasant taste ii. Reaction between alkaline constituent and cation (positive ion) produces precipitation in pipe

c) Hardness Definition : a measure of multivalent cations in water such as Ca 2+, Mg2+, Fe2+, Mn3+ Sources i. Natural mineral on earth Effects i. Excessive soap usage (a waste) ii. Precipitate form on hardware iii. Precipitate in pipe temperature and pH increased

d) e) f)

Fluoride Nutrients Metals

Biological
There are various types of microorganism in the water of which are bacteria, algae, protozoa and viruses. Most are not dangerous and does not affect humans in terms of health except PATHOGEN. Microorganisms that bring diseases are called PATHOGEN. Their quantities are very small compared to other microorganisms. The experiment to determine the presence of all pathogens takes a long time and very expensive. It is only carried out for very specified cases. The presence of pathogenic micro-organisms is shown by indicator microorganisms.

a) b)

Pathogen Microorganisms Small in quantity Their presence is hard to detect Indicator Microorganisms Their presence shows that pollution has occurred and suggests the type and level of pollution. The properties are: Can be used for all types of water Always present when pathogen is present Always absent when pathogen is absent Easily experimented and give realibility results Not pathogen micro organisms

Typical indicator used are coliform groups: Fecal coliforms e.g E.coli Total coliform e.g Fecal coliform, Soil coliform

Microorganisms
a) Bacteria Small organisms with size between 0.5 5.0 m Present individually, in pairs or in chains with different kind of shape such as rod, spiral and sphere. The organisms will double themselves within 15-30 minute in suitable condition Diseases caused by bacteria Typhoid fever, Cholera and Jaundice fever Classification of bacteria i. Aerobe ii. Anaerobe iii. Facultative

Aerobe

Anaerobe

Facultative

b)

Viruses The smallest microorganisms with sizes range from 0.01 0.3 m Required host for survival Cause diseases such as hepatitis, flu, jaundice, polio and aids

c)

Algae Plant that generate energy by photosynthesis. During the present of sun light, it increase the do level in the water However, when there are too much of algae in the water in the water: i. Taste and smell ii. Reduce the intensity of light penetration. iii. Die off disintegrate and caused anaerobic condition

d)

Protozoa Unisel organism with size 10-100 m Use bacteria and algae as source of food Could cause disease related to stomach and gastro intestine

Pengurusan air di Malaysia

a) Sistem pengurusan air di Malaysia melibatkan ramai stake holder kerana wujudnya dasar penswastaan. Sebelum dasar penswastaan diwujudkan, sistem pengurusan air diantara satu negeri dengan negeri yang lain adalah seragam . b) Di Malaysia, secara umumnya bidang kuasa air terletak dalam bidang kuasa negeri, setiap negeri mempunyai pengurusan air yang tersendiri. c) Pindaan diwartakan pada 10 Februari 2005 dan ia dikuatkuasakan pada 21 Mac 2005.Dengan pindaan itu, Kerajaan Persekutuan akan mengawal selia industri perkhidmatan air dari segi pelesenan dan kawal selia operator perkhidmatan. Kerajaan Negeri mengekalkan kuasanya terhadap sumber air, kawasan tadahan air dan lembangan sungai.

d)

Pada Pertengahan 2006, Parlimen Malaysia meluluskan dua undang-

undang yang mengubah cara Malaysia menguruskan perkhidmatan air

iaitu Akta Suruhanjaya Perkhidmatan Air Negara iaitu Akta 654 atau Akta SPAN dan Akta Industri Perkhidmatan Air iaitu Akta 655. e) Akta 654 menggariskan peranan, fungsi dan bidang tugas SPAN manakala Akta 655 memperuntukkan kawal selia meliputi ekonomi, teknikal dan sosial serta perlindungan hak pengguna. f) Selain daripada itu sistem bekalan air di Malaysia turut melibatkan pelbagai jabatan .

g) Sistem tadahan air dan punca air diletakan di bawah Pengurusan Kerajaan

Negeri yang turut melibatkan Jabatan Perhutanan serta hutan simpan kerana
kebanyakan kawasan tadahan air berada dalam kawasan hutan simpan setelah air mengalir ke empangan ini diuruskan pula oleh agensi yang berbeza bergantung pada jenis empangan.

h) Empangan untuk Penebatan banjir dan pengairan di bawah Jabatan Pengairan

dan Saliran (JPS), apabila ke loji rawatan air pula, air akan diuruskan oleh lembaga air negeri,atau jabatan kerja raya atau syarikat air yang dilantik oleh kerajaan negeri dan apabila air mengalir kepaip ia akan berada di dalam

industri perkhidmatan air negara di bawah kelolaan Suruhanjaya

Perkhidmatan Air Negara (SPAN), turut terlibat secara langsung dalam sistem pengurusan air negara ialah Jabatan Alam Sekitar yang mengawal kualiti air sungai ,Kualiti air minuman pula dikawal di bawah Kementerian Kesihatan.

Pencemaran air di Malaysia

Pencemaran sungai di Malaysia bukanlah satu perkara baru dalam senario isu alam sekitar dimalaysia, selama bertahun-tahun kita bergelumang dengan isu yang semakin klise dan menghampakan kita semua. Keghairahan Malaysia mengejar pembangunan dan tingkat ekonomi negara maju sehingga kita mengorbankan anugerah alam yang tiada ternilai harganya Kualiti air sungai-sungai di Malaysia semakin terancam dengan pencemaran. Pada umumnya, setiap sungai di negaraini dikategorikan kepada lima kelas iaitu; a) Kelas 1- airnya boleh terus diminum tanpa rawatan b) Kelas 2 airnya memerlukan rawatan biasa c) Kelas 3 air nampak bersih, tidak berbau, tetapi kualitinya tercemar dan orang ramai tidak boleh berenang tetapi boleh berkelah di tebing d) Kelas 4 tercemar e) Kelas 5 hampir mati* *Bagi Kelas 4 dan 5, keadaan air antara lain berbau busuk dan berwarna hitam.

 Senario semasa di Malaysia menunjukkan, bilangan sungai yang berada dalam kategori Kelas 1 dan Kelas 2 semakin berkurangan tetapi yang dikategorikan dalam Kelas 4 dan Kelas 5 semakin meningkat. Perkembangan ini memang dijangka selaras dengan pembangunan pesat yang dialami oleh negara selain mentaliti masyarakat yang masih rendah dalam usaha memelihara dan memulihara alam sekitar. Pada tahun 1976, analisis awal data kualiti air sungai menunjukkan terdapat 42 batang sungai yang teruk tercemar, 16 sederhana tercemar sementara 7 lagi berpotensi untuk tercemar. Antara sungai yang teruk tercemar ialah Sungai Kelang, Sungai Juru,Sungai Skudai dan Sungai Melaka.