Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Objectives
Identify the uses of a correlation coefficient Test the significance level of a correlation coefficient Obtain correlation coefficient using a computer/LR mode of a scientific calculator Interpret a correlation coefficient Propose a study in a school context making use of a correlation coefficient
A. Case Analysis
A guidance counselor (GC) wanted to replace the Metropolitan Achievement Test (MAT) with a less expensive and useful test, the Iowa Test for Basic Skills (ITBS). To determine if the MAT is equally measuring the ITBS, the GC looked at the manual of the MAT and found that it is convergent to ITBS with a correlation coefficient r=.82, p<.001.
What was the purpose of the guidance counselor? How did she find answer to her purpose? Can the ITBS used as a replacement for the MAT? What helped her decide to use ITBS as a replacement?
B. Case analysis
A guidance counselor wanted to find out is an aptitude test is good to include with an achievement tests to create a battery of tests given to new student applicants for high school. She had an available data of 150 students from the past years. She used this data to correlate the aptitude test scores with the achievement. She obtained a correlation coefficient of r=.91, p<.01.
What did the guidance counselor do to decide if the aptitude test can be included with the achievement as a set of battery? Can the aptitude test be included to form a battery of test? What will help the guidance counselor decide if the aptitude is good to be included.
C. Case analysis
A guidance counselor (GC) wanted to predict if the new students will be successful in the school in the future through their grades. The new students took an achievement as well as an aptitude test before enrollment. After the first quarter, the GC obtained the grades of the new students and she used their aptitude and achievement test scores to predict the grades. She computed for the multiple regression and found that aptitude contributes .38 (p<.05) to grades and achievement contributes .25 (p<.05) to grades.
Why do we need to know if the entrance test predicts grade sof students in the future? What statistics was used to predict grades? What were used as predictors of grades? What statistics was used to make the predictions? Are the achievement and aptitude predictive of the grades?
What is a correlation?
Measure of relationship between two variables Ex. Grades in English tends to be related with Foreign Language Height and weight Involves two variables that are paired because there is a relationship between them Deal with measurements made on two variables X and Y - bivariate
Nature of a correlation
Magnitude/direction of the relationship Strength of the relationship Variance explained Significance of the relationship
Linear Regression
There is a straight line relationship between variables X and Y When X increases, Y also increasespositive relationship When X increases, Y decreases or vice versa negative relationship
Aptitude (Y) 99 98 94 87 84 81 78 73 68
50
60
70 X
80
90
110
Laziness 100 95 90 85 75 70 65 60 55
Perseverance 35 40 45 50 55 60 64 70 76
100
90
80
X
70 60 50 40 30
40
50
60 Y
70
80 95% confidence
90
Strength of Relationship
A correlation coefficient is computed for a bivariate distribution using a statistical formula
Correlation Coefficient Value Interpretation
0.80 1.00
0.6 0.79 0.40 0.59 0.2 0.39 0.00 0.19
16
48 45 16 20 48 18
32
52 32 18 25 64 12
Strength of relationship
Scatterplot (Spreadsheet1 2v*10c) math ability = 8.4351+0.7245*x 70
60
50
40
30
math ability
20
10
0 10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Strength of Relationship
Scatterplot (Spreadsheet1 2v*10c) English ability = 24.0142+0.0307*x 55 50 45 40 35 30
spelling:English ability:
English ability
25 20 15 10 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 r = 0.0305, p = 0.9333spelling
Variance
How much of Ys is explained/accounted for by X Proportion explained Square of the correlation coefficient value r=.67, r2=.4489 X 100 = 44.89 Interpretation=44.89% of the time attitude in math explains variability in math ability. 55.11% of the time math ability is explained by other factors.
Conditions in interpreting r
Linear regression the points in a scatterplot should tend to fall along a straight line The size of the r reflects the amount of variance that can be accounted for by a straight line Homosedasticity tendency of the standard deviation (or variances) of the arrays to be equal.
Correlational Techniques
Pearson Product-Moment correlation (r) used for interval/ratio sets of variables Spearman Rank-order correlation two sets of data are ordinal Phi coefficient each of the variables is a dichotomy
Hypothesis Testing
A systematic procedure for deciding whether the results of a research study, which examines a sample, support a particular theory or practical innovation, which applies to the population (Aron & Aron (2004).
Example
1. Ho: There is no significant relationship between attitude and performance H1; There is a significant relationship between attitude and performance 2. N = 157, =.05, df=155, r critical=.161 3. r computed = .11, p value=.19 4. Decision=since the r obtained which is .11 is less the r critical (.161), the null hypothesis is not rejected. There is no significant relationship between attitude and performance in general psychology
Illustration
95%
Z=1.38 r=.11
Z=2.03, r=.161
Decision Errors
Type 1 error = if you reject the null hypothesis when in fact the null hypothesis is true Type 2 = in reality the research hypothesis is true, but the result doesnt come out extreme enough to reject the null hypothesis
Decision error
Real situation H0 is true
H1 is supported Reject Ho Study inconclusive Do not reject H0 Type I error Type II error
Computation of Pearson r
Stude nt Aptitude Test (Time 1) X Aptitude Retest (Time 2) Y
XY
X2
Y2
A
B C D E F G H I J
45
30 20 15 26 20 35 26 10 27 X=254
47
33 25 19 28 23 38 29 15 29 Y=286
2115
990 500 285 728 460 1330 754 150 783 XY =8095
2025
900 400 225 676 400 1225 676 100 729 X2 =7356
2209
1089 625 361 784 529 1444 841 225 841 Y2 =8948
Computation of Pearson r
r NXY (X )(Y ) [ NX 2 (X ) 2 ][NY 2 (Y ) 2 ]
10(8095) (254)(286) [10(7356) (254) 2 ][10(8948) (286) 2 ]
r = .996
Examples
Magno, Tangco, Cabangon, & Crisostomo
Magno (2007)
Y = a + bX Bivariate correlation
Multiple Regression association between a criterion variable and two or more predictor variables (Aron & Aron, 2003).
Multiple correlation coefficient = R Using two or more variables to predict a criterion variable.
Onwuegbuzie, A. J., Bailey, P, & Daley, C. E. (2000). Cognitive, affective, personality, and demographic predictors of foreign-language achievement. The Journal of Educational Research, 94, 3-15.
Study Habits
Expectation Affective Perception Anxiety Personality Cooperativeness Competitiveness Demographic Gender
Age
Espin, C., Shin, J., Deno, S. L., Skare, S., Robinson, S., & Brenner, B. (2000). Identifying indicators of written expression proficiency for middle school students. The Journal of Special Education, 34, 140-153.
Words written
Words correct
Characters Sentences Character/Word Word/sentences Correct word sentences Incorrect Word sentences
Results
Regression coefficient () /Beta weight Distinct contribution of a variable, excluding any overlap with other predictor variables. Unstandardized simple regression coefficient Standardized regression coefficient - converted variables (independent and dependent) to zscores before doing the regression. Indicates which independent variable has most effect on the dependent variable.
Results
Multiple correlation coefficient (R) the correlation between the criterion variable and all the predictor variables taken together. Squared Correlation Coefficient (R2) The percent of variance in the dependent variable explained collectively by all of the independent variables. R2adjusted - assessing the goodness of fit of a regression equation. How well do the predictors (regressors), taken together, explain the variation in the dependent variable. R2adj = 1 - (1-R2)(N-n-1)/(N-1)
R2adj above 75% as very good; 50-75% as good; 25-50% as fair; below 25% as poor and perhaps unacceptable. R2adj values above 90% are rare in psychological data
Residual - The deviation of a particular point from the regression line (its predicted value). t-tests - used to assess the significance of individual b coefficients. F test - The F test is used to test the significance of R, F = [R2/k]/[(1 - R2 )/(n - k - 1)].
Partial Correlation
In its squared form is the percent of variance in the dependent uniquely and jointly attributable to the given independent when other variables in the equation are controlled
Stepwise Regression
y = 0 + 1x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 + 4x4 + 5x5 + 6x6 + 7x7 + 8x8 + 9x9 + 10x10 + 11x11 + 12x12 + 13x13 + 14x14 + 14x14 + e choose a subset of the independent variables which "best" explains the dependent variable.
Heirarchical Regression
1) Forward Selection Start by choosing the independent variable which explains the most variation in the dependent variable. Choose a second variable which explains the most residual variation, and then recalculate regression coefficients. Continue until no variables "significantly" explain residual variation.
Stepwise Regression
2) Backward Selection Start with all the variables in the model, and drop the least "significant", one at a time, until you are left with only "significant" variables. 3) Mixture of the two Perform a forward selection, but drop variables which become no longer "significant" after introduction of new variables.
Hierarchical Regression
The researcher determines the order of entry of the variables. F-tests are used to compute the significance of each added variable (or set of variables) to the explanation reflected in R-square an alternative to comparing betas for purposes of assessing the importance of the independents
Categorical Regression
Used when there is a combination of nominal, ordinal, and interval-level independent variables.
Workshop
1. Propose a hypothesis of a study that you can do in your school. 2. Explain some background about your hypothesis (short, just explain in the presentation) 3. Indicate your plan for the respondents, instruments, procedure, and data analysis. 4. Indicate how will the information be useful in your school.