PHYSICS CHAPTER 5

1
CHAPTER 5:
Electric current and
direct-current circuits
(7 Hours)
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
2
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
Describe microscopic model of current.
Define and use electric current formulae,
Learning Outcome:
5.1 Electrical conduction (1 hour)
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dt
dQ
I =
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
3
5.1.1 Electric current, I
Consider a simple closed circuit consists of wires, a battery and
a light bulb as shown in Figure 5.1.
5.1 Electrical conduction
Area, A
e
F

I
Figure 5.1
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
4
From the Figure 5.1,
Direction of electric field or electric current :
Positive to negative terminal
Direction of electron flows :
Negative to positive terminal
The electron accelerates because of the electric force
acted on it.
is defined as the total (nett) charge, Q flowing through the
area per unit time, t.
Mathematically,
t
Q
I =
dt
dQ
I =
OR
instantaneous current
average current
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
5
It is a base and scalar quantities.
The S.I. unit of the electric current is the ampere (A).
Its dimension is given by


1 ampere of current is defined as one coulomb of charge
passing through the surface area in one second.
OR
| | A = I
1
s C 1
second 1
coulomb 1
ampere 1

= =
Note:
If the charge move around a circuit in the same direction
at all times, the current is called direct current (dc), which is
produced by the battery.
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
6
is defined as the current flowing through a conductor per
unit cross-sectional area.
Mathematically,




It is a vector quantity.
Its unit is ampere per squared metre (A m
2
)
The direction of current density, J always in the same
direction of the current I. e.g. in Figure 5.2.
5.1.2 Current density, J
A
I
J =
where
current electric : I
conductor the of area sectional - cross : A
I
max
J

0 = J

Area, A
Figure 5.2
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
7
In metal the charge carrier is free electrons and a lot of free
electrons are available in it.
They move freely and randomly throughout the crystal lattice
structure of the metal but frequently interact with the lattices.
When the electric field is applied to the metal, the freely
moving electron experience an electric force and tend to
drift with constant average velocity (called drift velocity)
towards a direction opposite to the direction of the field as
shown in Figure 5.3.






Then the electric current is flowing in the opposite direction
of the electron flows.
5.1.3 Electrical conduction in metal
E

I
d
v

d
v

Figure 5.3
Note:
The magnitude of the
drift velocity is much
smaller than the
random velocities of
the free electron.
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
8
Consider a metal rod of length L and cross-sectional area A,
which is applied to the electric field as shown in Figures 5.4.






Suppose there are n free electrons (charge carrier) per unit
volume in the metal rod, thus the number of free electron, N is
given by

5.1.4 Drift velocity of charges, v
d
E

I
d
v

d
v

L
A
Figure 5.4
V
N
n = AL V =
and
AL
N
n = nAL N =
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
9
The total charge Q of the free electrons that pass through the
area A along the rod is


The time required for the electron moving along the rod is



Since
Ne Q =
( )e nAL Q =
t
L
v =
d
d
v
L
t =
then the drift velocity v
d
is given by
t
Q
I =
( )
d
d
nAev
v
L
e nAL
I =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
nAe
I
v =
d
J
A
I
=
and
OR
where
electron the of charge : e
Definition
Density of the
free electron
ne
J
v =
d
electron free of number : n
e unit volum per carrier) (charge
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
10
A silver wire carries a current of 3.0 A. Determine
a. the number of electrons per second pass through the wire,
b. the amount of charge flows through a cross-sectional area of the
wire in 55 s.
(Given charge of electron, e = 1.60 10
19
C)
Solution :
a. By applying the equation of average current, thus





b. Given , thus the amount of charge flows is given by
Example 1 :
A 0 . 3 = I
t
Q
I =
( )
t
N
19
10 60 . 1
0 . 3

=
1 19
s electrons 10 88 . 1

=
t
N
and Ne Q =
t
Ne
I =
s 55 = t
It Q =
( )55 0 . 3 = Q C 165 = Q
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
11
A copper wire of radius 900 m carries a current of 17 mA. The wire
contains 8.49 10
28
free electrons per cubic meter. Determine
a. the magnitude of the drift velocity in the wire,
b. the current density in the wire.
(Given charge of electron, e = 1.60 10
19
C)
Solution :
a. By applying the equation of the drift velocity, thus





b. The current density is given by
Example 2 :
3 28 3 6
m 10 49 . 8 A; 10 17 m; 10 900

= = = n I r
nAe
I
v =
d
( ) ( ) ( )
19
2
6 28
3
d
10 60 . 1 10 900 10 49 . 8
10 17

v
1 7
d
s m 10 92 . 4

= v
and
2
r A=
e r n
I
v
2
d
t
=
2
r
I
J =
( )
2 3
2
6
3
m A 10 68 . 6
10 900
10 17

J
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
12
A high voltage transmission line with a diameter of 3.00 cm and a
length of 100 km carries a steady current of 1500 A. If the conductor
is copper wire with a free charge density of 8.49 10
28
electrons m
-3
,
calculate the time taken by one electron to travel the full length of the
line. (Given charge of electron, e = 1.60 10
19
C)
Solution :

By applying the equation of the drift velocity, thus





Therefore the time taken by one electron to travel the line is
Example 3 :
nAe
I
v =
d
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
19
2
2 28
d
10 60 . 1 10 00 . 3 10 49 . 8
1500 4


=

v
1 4
d
s m 10 56 . 1

= v
and
4
2
d
A =
e d n
I
v
2
d
4
t
=
d
v
L
t =
s 10 41 . 6
10 56 . 1
10 100
8
4
3
=

=

t
A; 1500 m; 10 100 m; 10 00 . 3
3 2
= = =

I L d
3 28
m 10 49 . 8

= n
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
13
Explain how electrical devices can begin operating almost
immediately after you switch on, even though the individual
electrons in the wire may take hours to reach the device.
Solution :
Example 4 :
Each electron in the wire affects its neighbours by exerting
a force on them, causing them to move.
When electrons begin to move out of a battery or source
their motion sets up a propagating influence that moves
through the wire at nearly the speed of light, causing
electrons everywhere in the wire begin to move.
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
14
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
Define and use resistivity formulae,



State Ohms law.
Apply formulae,
Learning Outcome:
5.2 Resistivity and Ohms law (1 hour)
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IR V =
l
RA
=
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
15
5.2.1 Resistance, R
is defined as a ratio of the potential difference across an
electrical component to the current passing through it.
Mathematically,




It is a measure of the components opposition to the flow of
the electric charge.
It is a scalar quantity and its unit is ohm (O ) or V A
1
In general, the resistance of a metallic conductor increases
with temperature.
5.2 Resistivity and Ohms law
I
V
R =
where
(voltage) difference potential : V
current : I
Note:
If the temperature of the metallic conductor is constant hence its
resistance also constant.
(5.1)
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
16
Resistivity,
is defined as the resistance of a unit cross-sectional area per
unit length of the material.
Mathematically,




It is a scalar quantity and its unit is ohm meter (O m)
It is a measure of a materials ability to oppose the flow of
an electric current.
It also known as specific resistance.
Resistivity depends on the type of the material and on the
temperature.
A good electric conductors have a very low resistivities and
good insulators have very high resistivities.
5.2.2 Resistivity and conductivity

l
RA
=
where
material the of length : l
area sectional - cross : A
(5.2)
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
17
From the eq. (5.2), the resistance of a conductor depends on
the length and cross-sectional area.
Table 5.1 shows the resistivity for various materials at 20 C.








Conductivity, o
is defined as the reciprocal of the resistivity of a material.
Mathematically,


It is a scalar quantity and its unit is O
1
m
1
.
Material
Resistivity, ( O m)

Silver 1.59 10
8
Copper 1.68 10
8

Aluminum 2.82 10
8

Gold 2.44 10
8

Glass 10
10
10
14
Table 5.1

1
= (5.3)
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
18
Two wires P and Q with circular cross section are made of the same
metal and have equal length. If the resistance of wire P is three times
greater than that of wire Q, determine the ratio of their diameters.
Solution :
Given
Example 5 :
l l l = = = =
Q P Q P
;
Q P
3R R =
and
A
l
R =
3
P
Q
=
d
d
Q
Q Q
P
P P
3
A
l
A
l
=
and
4
2
d
A =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
Q
2
P
4
3
4
d
l
d
l
OR
3
1
Q
P
=
d
d
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
19
When a potential difference of 240 V is applied across a wire that is
200 cm long and has a 0.50 mm radius, the current density is
7.14 10
9
A m
2
. Calculate
a. the resistivity of the wire,
b. the conductivity of the wire.
Solution :

a. From the definition of resistance, thus





b. The conductivity of the wire is given by
Example 6 :
I
V
R =
m 10 68 . 1
8
O =

where
A
l
R =
JA
V
A
l
= ( )
9
10 14 . 7
240
00 . 2

=
1 1 7
8
m 10 95 . 5
10 68 . 1
1

O =

=
m; 10 50 . 0 m; 00 . 2 V; 240
3
= = = r l V
2 9
m A 10 14 . 7

= J
and
JA I =

1
=
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
20
States that the potential difference across a metallic
conductor is proportional to the current flowing through it if
its temperature is constant.
Mathematically,





Ohms law also can be stated in term of electric field E and
current density J.
Consider a uniform conductor of length l and cross-sectional
area A as shown in Figure 5.5.
5.2.3 Ohms law

(5.4)
I V
where
conductor a of resistance : R
where
constant = T
Then
IR V =
Figure 5.5
E

I A
l
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
21
A potential difference V is maintained across the conductor
sets up by an electric field E and this field produce a current
I that is proportional to the potential difference.
If the field is assumed to be uniform, the potential difference
V is related to the field through the relationship below :

From the Ohms law,
Ed V = El V =
IR V = JA I = where
|
.
|

\
|
=
A
l
JA El
A
l
R =
and
J E =

1
=
and
OR
E J =
(5.5)
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
22
Figures 5.6a, 5.6b, 5.6c and 5.6d show the potential difference
V against current I graphs for various materials.
V
I
0
Gradient, m
= R
Figure 5.6a : metal
V
I
0
Figure 5.6b : semiconductor
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
23
V
I
0
Figure 5.6c : carbon
V
I
0
Figure 5.6d : electrolyte
Note:
Some conductors have resistances which depend on the
currents flowing through them are known as Ohmic conductors
and are said to obey Ohms law.
Meanwhile, non-ohmic conductors are the conductors where
their resistance depend only of the temperature.
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
24
A copper wire carries a current of 10.0 A. The cross section of the
wire is a square of side 2.0 mm and its length is 50 m. The density of
the free electron in the wire is 8.0 10
28
m
3
. Determine
a. the current density,
b. the drift velocity of the electrons,
c. the electric field intensity between both end of the wire,
d. the potential difference across the wire,
e. the resistance of the wire.
(Given the resistivity of copper is 1.68 10
8
O m and charge of
electron, e = 1.60 10
19
C)
Solution :

a. The current density is given by
Example 7 :
; m 10 0 . 8 m; 10 0 . 2 A; 0 . 10
3 28 3
= = = n a I
m 50 = l
A
I
J =
2
a A = and
2
a
I
J =
( )
2 6
2
3
m A 10 5 . 2
10 0 . 2
0 . 10

= J
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
25
Solution :

d. By using the equation of drift velocity, thus










c. The electric field intensity is
; m 10 0 . 8 m; 10 0 . 2 A; 0 . 10
3 28 3
= = = n a I
m 50 = l
nAe
I
v =
d
( )( ) ( )
19
2
3 28
d
10 60 . 1 10 0 . 2 10 0 . 8
0 . 10


= v
1 4
d
s m 10 95 . 1

= v
and
2
a A =
e na
I
v
2
d
=
J E =
( )( )
6 8
10 5 . 2 10 68 . 1 =

E
1
C N 042 . 0

= E
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
26
Solution :

d. By applying the relationship between uniform E and V, hence





e. From the ohms law, therefore
; m 10 0 . 8 m; 10 0 . 2 A; 0 . 10
3 28 3
= = = n a I
m 50 = l
El V =
( )( ) 50 042 . 0 = V
V 1 . 2 = V
IR V =
R 0 . 10 1 . 2 =
O = 21 . 0 R
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
27
Exercise 5.1 :
1. A block in the shape of a rectangular solid has a cross-
sectional area of 3.50 cm
2
across its width, a front to rear
length of 15.8 cm and a resistance of 935 O. The material of
which the block is made has 5.33 10
22
electrons m
3
. A
potential difference of 35.8 V is maintained between its front
and rear faces. Calculate
a. the current in the block,
b. the current density in the block,
c. the drift velocity of the electron,
d. the magnitude of the electric field in the block.
(Fundamentals of Physics,6
th
edition, Halliday, Resnick &
Walker, Q24, p.631)
ANS. : 3.83 10
2
A; 109 A m
2
; 1.28 10
2
m s
1
; 227 V m
1

PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
28
Exercise 5.1 :
2.






Figure 5.7 shows a rod in is made of two materials. Each
conductor has a square cross section and 3.00 mm on a side.
The first material has a resistivity of 4.00 10
3
O m and is
25.0 cm long, while the second material has a resistivity of
6.00 10
3
O m and is 40.0 cm long. Determine the
resistance between the ends of the rod.
(Physics for scientists and engineers,6
th
edition,Serway&Jewett,
Q24, p.853)
ANS. : 378 O
Figure 5.7
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
29
Exercise 5.1 :
3. A 2.0 m length of wire is made by welding the end of a 120 cm
long silver wire to the end of an 80 cm long copper wire. Each
piece of wire is 0.60 mm in diameter. A potential difference of
5.0 V is maintained between the ends of the 2.0 m composite
wire. Determine
a. the current in the copper and silver wires.
b. the magnitude of the electric field in copper and silver
wires.
c. the potential difference between the ends of the silver
section of wire.
(Given (silver) is 1.47 10
8
O m and (copper) is 1.72
10
8
O m)
(University physics,11
th
edition, Young&Freedman, Q25.56,
p.976)
ANS. : 45 A; 2.76 V m
1
, 2.33 V m
1
; 2.79 V
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
30
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
Explain the effect of temperature on electrical resistance
in metals and superconductors
Define and explain temperature coefficient of resistivity,o.
Apply formulae :
Learning Outcome:
5.3 Variation of resistance with temperature
(1 hour)
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s

( ) | |
0 0
1 T T R R + = o
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
31
5.3.1 Effect of temperature on resistance
Metal
When the temperature increases, the number of free
electrons per unit volume in metal remains unchanged.
Metal atoms in the crystal lattice vibrate with greater
amplitude and cause the number of collisions between the
free electrons and metal atoms increase. Hence the resistance
in the metal increases.
Superconductor
Superconductor is a class of metals and compound whose
resistance decreases to zero when they are below the
critical temperature T
c
.
5.3 Variation of resistance with
temperature
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
32
Table 5.2 shows the critical temperature for various
superconductors.









When the temperature of the metal decreases, its resistance
decreases to zero at critical temperature.
Superconductor have many technological applications such as
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
magnetic levitation of train
faster computer chips
powerful electric motors and etc
Material
T
c
( K)

Lead 7.18

Mercury 4.15
Tin 3.72
Aluminum 1.19
Zinc 0.88

Table 5.2
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
33
is defined as a fractional increase in resistivity of a
conductor per unit rise in temperature.
OR






Since A =
0
then



The unit of o is C
1
OR K
1
.
From the equation (5.7), the resistivity of a conductors varies
approximately linearly with temperature.
5.3.2 Temperature coefficient of resistivity, o

T

A
A
=
0
where
y resistivit in the change : A
0
change ure temperat : T T T = A
y resistivit initial :
0

y resistivit final : where

( ) T A + = 1
0
(5.6)
(5.7)
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
34
From the definition of resistivity, thus

then the equation (5.7) can be expressed as




Table 5.3 shows the temperature coefficients of resistivity for
various materials.
R
( ) T R R A + = 1
0
(5.8)
where
resistance initial :
0
R
resistance final : R
Material
o (C
1
)

Silver 4.10 10
3
Mercury 0.89 10
3
Iron 6.51 10
3
Aluminum 4.29 10
3
Copper 6.80 10
3
Table 5.3
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
35
Figures 5.8a, 5.8b, 5.8c and 5.8d show the resistance R against
temperature T graphs for various materials.
R
T
0
0
R
c
T
Figure 5.8a : metal Figure 5.8b : semiconductor
R
T
0
R
T
0
Figure 5.8c : superconductor
R
T
0
Figure 5.8d : carbon
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
36
A copper wire has a resistance of 25 mO at 20 C. When the wire is
carrying a current, heat produced by the current causes the
temperature of the wire to increase by 27 C.
a. Calculate the change in the wires resistance.
b. If its original current was 10.0 mA and the potential difference
across wire remains constant, what is its final current?
(Given the temperature coefficient of resistivity for copper is
6.80 10
3
C
1
)
Solution :
a. By using the equation for temperature variation of resistance, thus
Example 8 :
C 27 C; 20 ; 10 25
0
3
0

= A = O =

T T R
( ) T R R A + = 1
0
R R R A =
0
and
O = A

10 59 . 4
3
R
T R R R A =
0 0
T R R A = A
0
( )( )( ) 27 10 80 . 6 10 25
3 3
= AR
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
37
Solution :

b. Given
By using the equation for temperature variation of resistance,
thus
C 27 C; 20 ; 10 25
0
3
0

= A = O =

T T R
( ) T R R A + = 1
0
0
I
V
R =
and where
I
V
R =
A 10 0 . 10
3
0

= I
( ) T
I
V
I
V
A + = 1
0
( )
( )( ) | | 27 10 80 . 6 1
10 0 . 10
1 1
3
3

=
I
A 10 45 . 8
3
= I
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
38
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
Define emf, c
Explain the difference between emf of a battery and
potential difference across the battery terminals.
Apply formulae,
Learning Outcome:
5.4 Electromotive force (emf), potential
difference and internal resistance ( hour)
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s

Ir V =
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
39
5.4.1 Emf, c and potential difference, V
Consider a circuit consisting of a battery (cell) that is connected
by wires to an external resistor R as shown in Figure 5.9.
5.4 Electromotive force (emf), potential
difference and internal resistance
I Battery (cell)
A
B
r

R
I
Figure 5.9
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
40
A current I flows from the terminal A to the terminal B.
For the current to flow continuously from terminal A to B, a
source of electromotive force (e.m.f.), c is required such as
battery to maintained the potential difference between point A
and point B.
Electromotive force (emf),c is defined as the energy provided
by the source (battery/cell) to each unit charge that flows
through the external and internal resistances.
Terminal potential difference (voltage), V is defined as the work
done in bringing a unit (test) charge from the negative to
the positive terminals of the battery through the external
resistance only.
The unit for both e.m.f. and potential difference are volt (V).
When the current I flows naturally from the battery there is an
internal drop in potential difference (voltage) equal to Ir. Thus
the terminal potential difference (voltage), V is given by

PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
41





then





Equation (5.9) is valid if the battery (cell) supplied the current
to the circuit where

For the battery without internal resistance or if no current
flows in the circuit (open circuit), then equation (5.9) can be
written as
Ir V =
(5.9)
and
IR V =
( ) r R I + =
(5.10)
where e.m.f. :
(voltage) difference potential terminal : V
r
OR difference potential in drop internal : V Ir
resistance external total : R
(battery) cell a of resistance internal : r
V <
V =
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
42
is defined as the resistance of the chemicals inside the
battery (cell) between the poles and is given by






The value of internal resistance depends on the type of
chemical material in the battery.
The symbol of emf and internal resistance in the electrical circuit
are shown in Figures 5.10a and 5.10b.
5.4.2 Internal resistance of a battery, r

I
V
r
when the cell (battery) is used.
where
resistance internal across difference potential :
r
V
circuit in the current : I
r

OR
r

Figure 5.10a Figure 5.10b
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
43
A battery has an emf of 9.0 V and an internal resistance of 6.0 O.
Determine
a. the potential difference across its terminals when it is supplying a
current of 0.50 A,
b. the maximum current which the battery could supply.
Solution :
a. Given
By applying the expression for emf, thus



b. The current is maximum when the total external resistance, R =0,
therefore
Example 9 :
O = = 0 . 6 V; 0 . 9 r
A 50 . 0 = I
V 0 . 6 = V
( )( ) 0 . 6 50 . 0 0 . 9 + =V
Ir V + =
A 5 . 1
max
= I
( ) 0 . 6 0 0 . 9
max
+ = I
( ) r R I + =
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
44
A car battery has an emf of 12.0 V and an internal resistance of
1.0 O. The external resistor of resistance 5.0 O is connected in series
with the battery as shown in Figure 5.11.












Determine the reading of the ammeter and voltmeter if both meters
are ideal.
Example 10 :
R
V

r
A
Figure 5.11
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
45
Solution :
By applying the equation of e.m.f., the current in the circuit is





Therefore the reading of the ammeter is 2.0 A.
The voltmeter measures the potential difference across the
terminals of the battery equal to the potential difference across
the total external resistor, thus its reading is
O = O = = 0 . 5 ; 0 . 1 V; 0 . 12 R r
IR V =
A 0 . 2 = I
( ) r R I + =
( ) 0 . 1 0 . 5 0 . 12 + = I
( )( ) 0 . 5 0 . 2 = V
V 10 = V
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
46
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
Apply formula,
Learning Outcome:
5.5 Electrical energy and power ( hour)
w
w
w
.
k
m
p
h
.
m
a
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r
i
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u
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/
p
h
y
s
i
c
s

VI P =
VIt W =
and
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
47
5.5.1 Electrical energy, E
Consider a circuit consisting of a battery that is connected by
wires to an electrical device (such as a lamp, motor or battery
being charged) as shown in Figure 5.12 where the potential
different across that electrical device is V.
5.5 Electrical energy and power
Figure 5.12
Electrical device
A B
V I
I
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
48
A current I flows from the terminal A to the terminal B, if it flows
for time t, the charge Q which it carries from B to A is given by

Then the work done on this charge Q from B to A (equal to the
electrical energy supplied) is




If the electrical device is passive resistor (device which
convert all the electrical energy supplied into heat), the heat
dissipated H is given by

QV W =
It Q =
VIt E W = =
(5.11)
VIt W H = =
OR
Rt I H
2
=
(5.12)
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
49
is defined as the energy liberated per unit time in the
electrical device.
The electrical power P supplied to the electrical device is given
by




When the electric current flows through wire or passive resistor,
hence the potential difference across it is

then the electrical power can be written as




It is a scalar quantity and its unit is watts (W).
5.5.2 Power, P

t
VIt
t
W
P = =
IV P =
(5.13)
IR V =
R I P
2
=
OR
R
V
P
2
=
(5.14)
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
50










In Figure 5.13, a battery has an emf of 12 V and an internal
resistance of 1.0 O. Determine
a. the rate of energy transferred to electrical energy in the battery,
b. the rate of heat dissipated in the battery,
c. the amount of heat loss in the 5.0 O resistor if the current flows
through it for 20 minutes.
Example 11 :
Figure 5.13
R

r
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
51
Solution :
The current in the circuit is given by



a. The rate of energy transferred to electrical energy (power) in the
battery is


b. The rate of heat dissipated due to the internal resistance is



c. Given
The amount of heat loss in the resistor is
O = O = = 0 . 5 ; 0 . 1 V; 0 . 12 R r
I P =
A 0 . 2 = I
( ) r R I + =
( ) 0 . 1 0 . 5 0 . 12 + = I
( )( ) 0 . 12 0 . 2 = P
W 24 = P
r I P
2
= ( ) ( ) 0 . 1 0 . 2
2
= P
W 0 . 4 = P
( ) s 1200 60 20 = = t
Rt I H
2
= ( ) ( )1200 0 . 5 0 . 2
2
= H
J 10 4 . 2
4
= H
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
52
Cells in series
Consider two cells are connected in series as shown in Figure
5.14.




The total emf, c and the total internal resistance, r are given by




5.5.3 Combination of cells

1
r
2
r
1

Figure 5.14
2 1
r r r + =
2 1
+ =
and
(5.15)
(5.16)
Note:
If one cell, e.m.f. c
2
say, is turned round in opposition to the
others, then but the total internal resistance remains
unaltered.
2 1
=
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
53
Cells in parallel
Consider two equal cells are connected in parallel as shown in
Figure 5.15.






The total emf, c and the total internal resistance, r are given by

1
r
1
r
1

Figure 5.15
1 1
1 1 1
r r r
+ =
1
=
and
(5.17)
(5.18)
Note:
If different cells are connected in parallel, there is no simple
formula for the total emf and the total internal resistance where
Kirchhoffs laws have to be used.
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
54
Exercise 5.2 :
1. A wire of unknown composition has a resistance of 35.0 O
when immersed in the water at 20.0 C. When the wire is
placed in the boiling water, its resistance rises to 47.6 O.
Calculate the temperature on a hot day when the wire has a
resistance of 37.8 O.
(Physics,7
th
edition, Cutnell & Johnson, Q15, p.639)
ANS. : 37.8 C
2. a. A battery of emf 6.0 V is connected across a 10 O resistor.
If the potential difference across the resistor is 5.0 V,
determine
i. the current in the circuit,
ii. the internal resistance of the battery.
b. When a 1.5 V dry cell is short-circuited, a current of 3.0 A
flows through the cell. What is the internal resistance of the
cell?
ANS. : 0.50 A, 2.0 O; 0.50 O

PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
55
Exercise 5.2 :
3. An electric toy of resistance 2.50 O is operated by a dry cell of
emf 1.50 V and an internal resistance 0.25 O.
a. What is the current does the toy drawn?
b. If the cell delivers a steady current for 6.00 hours, calculate
the charge pass through the toy.
c. Determine the energy was delivered to the toy.
ANS. : 0.55 A; 1.19 10
4
C; 16.3 kJ
4. A wire 5.0 m long and 3.0 mm in diameter has a resistance of
100 O. A 15 V of potential difference is applied across the
wire. Determine
a. the current in the wire,
b. the resistivity of the wire,
c. the rate at which heat is being produced in the wire.
(College Physics,6
th
edition, Wilson, Buffa & Lou, Q75, p.589)
ANS. : 0.15 A; 1.40 10
4
O m; 2.30 W
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
56
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
Deduce effective resistance of resistors in series and
parallel.
Calculate effective resistance of resistors in series and
parallel.
Learning Outcome:
5.6 Resistors in series and parallel (1 hour)
w
w
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s
i
c
s

PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
57
5.6.1 Resistors in series
The symbol of resistor in an electrical circuit can be shown in
Figure 5.16.



Consider three resistors are connected in series to the battery
as shown in Figure 5.17.

5.6 Resistors in series and parallel
OR
R
R
Figure 5.16
1
R
2
R
3
R
V
1
V
2
V
3
V
I
I
Figure 5.17
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
58
Characteristics of resistors in series
The same current I flows through each resistor where


Assuming that the connecting wires have no resistance, the
total potential difference, V is given by


From the definition of resistance, thus

Substituting for V
1
, V
2
, V
3
and V in the eq. (5.19) gives
(5.19)
(5.20)
3 2 1
I I I I = = =
3 2 1
V V V V + + =
;
2 2
IR V = ;
3 3
IR V =
;
1 1
IR V =
eff
IR V =
3 2 1 eff
IR IR IR IR + + =
3 2 1 eff
R R R R + + =
where
resistance t) (equivalen effective :
eff
R
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
59
V
1
R
3
R
2
R
Consider three resistors are connected in parallel to the battery
as shown in Figures 5.18a and 5.18b.
5.6.2 Resistors in parallel

I
I
2
I
1
I
3
I
1
V
2
V
3
V
V
1
R
3
R
2
R
I
I
1
I
3
I
2
I
Figure 5.18a
Figure 5.18b
2
V
3
V
1
V
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
60
Characteristics of resistors in parallel
There same potential difference, V across each resistor
where

The charge is conserved, therefore the total current I in the
circuit is given by


From the definition of resistance, thus


Substituting for I
1
, I
2
, I
3
and I in the eq. (5.21) gives
(5.21)
(5.22)
3 2 1
V V V V = = =
3 2 1
I I I I + + =
;
2
2
R
V
I = ;
3
3
R
V
I =
;
1
1
R
V
I =
eff
R
V
I =
3 2 1 eff
R
V
R
V
R
V
R
V
+ + =
3 2 1 eff
1 1 1 1
R R R R
+ + =
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
61









For the circuit in Figure 5.19, calculate
a. the effective resistance of the circuit,
b. the current passes through the 12 O resistor,
c. the potential difference across 4.0 O resistor,
d. the power delivered by the battery.
The internal resistance of the battery may be ignored.
Example 12 :
Figure 5.19
O 0 . 4
O 0 . 2
V 0 . 8
O 12
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
62
Solution :
a.







The resistors R
1
and R
2
are in series, thus R
12
is


Since R
12
and R
3
are in parallel, therefore R
eff
is given by
V 0 . 8 ; 0 . 2 ; 12 ; 0 . 4
3 2 1
= O = O = O = V R R R
1
R
V
2
R
3
R
12
R
V
3
R
O = 16
12
R
2 1 12
R R R + = 12 0 . 4
12
+ = R
3 12 eff
1 1 1
R R R
+ =
2
1
16
1 1
eff
+ =
R
O = 78 . 1
eff
R
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
63
Solution :
b. Since R
12
and R
3
are in parallel, thus

Therefore the current passes through R
2
is given by



c. Since R
1
and R
2
are in series, thus

Hence the potential difference across R
1
is


d. The power delivered by the battery is
V 0 . 8 ; 0 . 2 ; 12 ; 0 . 4
3 2 1
= O = O = O = V R R R
A 50 . 0
2
= I
V 0 . 8
3 12
= = = V V V
12
12
2
R
V
I =
A 50 . 0
2 1
= = I I
1 1 1
R I V =
V 0 . 2
1
= V
16
0 . 8
2
= I
( ) 0 . 4 50 . 0
1
= V
eff
2
R
V
P =
( )
78 . 1
0 . 8
2
= P
W 0 . 36 = P
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
64






For the circuit in Figure 5.20, calculate the effective resistance
between the points A and B.
Solution :
; 20 ; 10 ; 0 . 5 ; 0 . 5
4 3 2 1
O = O = O = O = R R R R
O = 10
5
R
Example 13 :
Figure 5.20 O 0 . 5
O 10
O 10
A
B
O 0 . 5
O 20
2
R
3
R
5
R
A
B
1
R
4
R
3
R
5
R
A
B
12
R
4
R
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
65
Solution :

R
1
and R
2
are connected in series, thus R
12
is

2 1 12
R R R + =
; 20 ; 10 ; 0 . 5 ; 0 . 5
4 3 2 1
O = O = O = O = R R R R
O = 10
5
R
O = + = 10 0 . 5 0 . 5
12
R
5
R
A
B
123
R
4
R
Since R
12
and R
3
are connected in
parallel , thus R
123
is given by
3 12 123
1 1 1
R R R
+ =
O = 0 . 5
123
R
10
1
10
1 1
123
+ =
R
5
R
A
B
1234
R
R
123
and R
4
are connected in series ,
thus R
1234
is given by
4 123 1234
R R R + =
O = 25
1234
R
20 0 . 5
1234
+ = R
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
66
Solution :







Since R
1234
and R
5
are connected in parallel , therefore the
effective resistance R
eff
is given by
; 20 ; 10 ; 0 . 5 ; 0 . 5
4 3 2 1
O = O = O = O = R R R R
O = 10
5
R
5 1234 eff
1 1 1
R R R
+ =
O = 14 . 7
eff
R
10
1
25
1 1
eff
+ =
R
A
B
eff
R
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
67
Exercise 5.3 :
1. Determine the equivalent resistances of the resistors in
Figures 5.21, 5.22 and 5.23.
















ANS. : 0.80 O; 2.7 O; 8.0 O
O 0 . 2
O 0 . 2
O 0 . 2
O 0 . 2
Figure 5.21 Figure 5.22
O 0 . 6
O 0 1
O 0 . 6
O 0 . 4
O 18
O 16
O 0 . 8
O 0 . 9
O 16
O 0 . 6
O 20
Figure 5.23
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
68
2.







The circuit in Figure 5.24 includes a battery with a finite
internal resistance, r = 0.50 O.
a. Determine the current flowing through the 7.1 O and 3.2 O
resistors.
b. How much current flows through the battery?
c. What is the potential difference between the terminals of
the battery?
(Physics,3
th
edition, James S. Walker, Q39, p.728)
ANS. : 1.1 A, 0.3 A; 1.4 A; 11.3 V
O 0 . 1
V 12
r
O 1 . 7
O 8 . 5
O 5 . 4
O 2 . 3
Figure 5.24
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
69
3.







Four identical resistors are connected to a battery as shown in
Figure 5.25. When the switch is open, the current through the
battery is I
0
.
a. When the switch is closed, will the current through the
battery increase, decrease or stay the same? Explain.
b. Calculate the current that flows through the battery when
the switch is closed, Give your answer in terms of I
0
.
(Physics,3
th
edition, James S. Walker, Q45, p.728)
ANS. : U think
Figure 5.25

R
R
R
R
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
70
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
State and use Kirchhoffs Laws.
Learning Outcome:
5.7 Kirchhoffs laws (1 hour)
w
w
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k
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p
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m
a
t
r
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k
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s
i
c
s

PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
71
5.7.1 Kirchhoffs first law (junction or current law)
states the algebraic sum of the currents entering any
junctions in a circuit must equal the algebraic sum of the
currents leaving that junction.
OR


For example :

5.7 Kirchhoffs laws

=
out in
I I
(5.23)
A B
2
I
1
I
5
I
4
I
3
I
3
I
3 2 1
I I I = +
5 4 3
I I I + =

=
out in
I I
Figure 5.26
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
72
states in any closed loop, the algebraic sum of emfs is
equal to the algebraic sum of the products of current and
resistance.
OR In any closed loop,



Sign convention
For emf, c:
5.7.2 Kirchhoffs second law (loop or voltage law)

= c IR
(5.24)
+

direction of loop
+
-

-

+
direction of loop
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
73
For product of IR:






Choose and labeling the current at each junction in the circuit
given.
Choose any one junction in the circuit and apply the
Kirchhoffs first law.
Choose any two closed loops in the circuit and designate a
direction (clockwise OR anticlockwise) to travel around the
loop in applying the Kirchhoffs second law.
Solving the simultaneous equation to determine the unknown
currents and unknown variables.
IR +
direction of loop
I
R
IR
I
R
direction of loop
5.7.3 Problem solving strategy (Kirchhoffs Laws)
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
74
For example, Consider a circuit is shown in Figure 5.27a.












At junction A or D (applying the Kirchhoffs first law) :
1
R
3
R
1

E
D
F
2
R
2

C
A
B
1
I
1
I
1
I
1
I
2
I
2
I
3
I 3
I
3
I
3
I
Loop 1
Loop 2
Loop 3
Figure 5.27a

=
out in
I I
3 2 1
I I I + =
(1)
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
75
For the closed loop (either clockwise or anticlockwise), apply
the Kirchhoffs second law.
From Loop 1
Figure 5.27b
(2)
FEDAF
1

1
R
E
D
F
2
R
2

A
1
I
1
I
1
I
1
I
2
I
2
I
Loop 1
1 1 2 2 2 1
R I R I + = +

= c IR
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
76
From Loop 2
Figure 5.27c
(3)
ABCDA
2

3
R
D
2
R
3

C
A
B
2
I
2
I
3
I 3
I
3
I
3
I
Loop 2
3 3 2 2 3 2
R I R I =

= c IR
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
77
From Loop 3













By solving equation (1) and any two equations from the
closed loop, hence each current in the circuit can be
determined.
Figure 5.27d
(4)
FECBF
1
R
3
R
1

E F
3

C
B
1
I
1
I
1
I
1
I
3
I 3
I
3
I
3
I
Loop 3
1 1 3 3 3 1
R I R I + = +
Note:
From the calculation,
sometimes we get
negative value of
current. This negative
sign indicates that
the direction of the
actual current is
opposite to the
direction of the
current drawn.
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
78










For the circuit in Figure 5.28, Determine the current and its direction
in the circuit.
Example 14 :
Figure 5.28
O 1 . 15
O .22 6
O 50 . 8
O 2 , V 1.5 1
O 4 , V 5.0 1
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
79
Solution :








By applying the Kirchhoffs 2
nd
law, thus

= IR
A 74 . 0 = I
I I I I I 4 50 . 8 2 22 . 6 1 . 15 5 . 11 0 . 15 + + + + = +
O 1 . 15
O .22 6
O 50 . 8
O 2 , V 1.5 1
O 4 , V 5.0 1
Loop 1
I
I
I
I
(anticlockwise)
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
80










For the circuit in Figure 5.29, determine
a. the currents I
1
, I
2
and I,
b. the potential difference across the 6.7 O resistor,
c. the power dissipated from the 1.2 O resistor.
Example 15 :
Figure 5.29
O 8 . 9
O 9 . 3
V .0 9 V 2 1
O 7 . 6
O .2 1
I
1
I
2
I
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
81
Solution :
a.






At junction A, by using the Kirchhoffs 1
st
law, thus



By using the Kirchhoffs 2
nd
law,
From Loop 1:

=
out in
I I
I I I = +
2 1
O 8 . 9
O 9 . 3
V .0 9 V 2 1
O 7 . 6
O .2 1
1
I
2
I
I
1
I
2
I
I
A
B
Loop 1
Loop 2
(1)

= IR
1 1
8 . 9 2 . 1 9 . 3 12 I I I + + =
12 2 . 1 7 . 13
1
= + I I
(2)
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
82
Solution :
a. From Loop 2:



By solving the simultaneous equations, we get

b. The potential difference across the 6.7 O resistor is given by



c. The power dissipated from the 1.2 O resistor is

= IR
I I 2 . 1 7 . 6 0 . 9
2
+ =
0 . 9 2 . 1 7 . 6
2
= + I I
(3)
A 75 . 1 A; 03 . 1 A; 72 . 0
2 1
= = = I I I
R I V
2
=
( ) 7 . 6 03 . 1 = V
V 90 . 6 = V
R I P
2
=
( ) ( ) 2 . 1 75 . 1
2
= P
W 68 . 3 = P
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
83
Exercise 5.4 :
1. For a circuit in Figure 5.30,










Given c
1
= 8V, R
2
= 2 O, R
3
= 3 O, R
1
= 1 O and I = 3 A.
Ignore the internal resistance in each battery. Calculate
a. the currents I
1
and I
2
.
b. the emf, c
2
.

ANS. : 1.0 A, 4.0 A; 17 V
Figure 5.30
3
R
1

2
R
2

1
I
2
I
I
1
R
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
84
Exercise 5.4 :
2.










Determine the current in each resistor in the circuit shown in
Figure 5.31.
(College Physics,6
th
edition, Wilson, Buffa & Lou, Q57, p.619)

ANS. : 3.75 A; 1.25 A; 1.25 A
Figure 5.31
O 0 . 4
O 0 . 4
V .0 5
V .0 5
O .0 4
V 0 1
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
85
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
Explain the principle of a potential divider.
Apply equation of potential divider,
Learning Outcome:
5.8 Potential divider ( hour)
w
w
w
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k
m
p
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.
m
a
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r
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u
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m
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/
p
h
y
s
i
c
s

V
R R
R
V
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
2 1
1
1
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
86
A potential divider produces an output voltage that is a fraction
of the supply voltage V. This is done by connecting two
resistors in series as shown in Figure 5.32.








Since the current flowing through each resistor is the same,
thus

5.8 Potential divider
V
1
V
1
R
I
2
V
2
R
I
2 1 eff
R R R + =
eff
R
V
I =
and
2 1
R R
V
I
+
=
Figure 5.32
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
87
Therefore, the potential difference (voltage) across R
1
is given
by



Similarly,



Resistance R
1
and R
2
can be replaced by a uniform
homogeneous wire as shown in Figure 5.33.


Figure 5.33
1 1
IR V =
V
R R
R
V
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
2 1
1
1
V
R R
R
V
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
2 1
2
2
(5.25)
(5.26)
V
I
2
l
1
l
I
B
A
C
2
V
1
V
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
88
The total resistance, R
AB
in the wire is






Since the current flowing through the wire is the same, thus
A
l
R =
CB AC AB
R R R + =
A
l
A
l
R
2 1
AB
+ =
and
AB
R
V
I =
( )
2 1
l l
A

V
I
+
=
( )
2 1 AB
l l
A

R + =
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
89
Therefore, the potential difference (voltage) across the wire with
length l
1
is given by







Similarly,
AC 1
IR V =
( )
|
.
|

\
|
(
(
(

+
=
A
l
l l
A

V
V
1
2 1
1
V
l l
l
V
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
2 1
1
1
(5.27)
V
l l
l
V
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
2 1
2
2
(5.28)
Note:
From Ohms law,
l V
|
.
|

\
|
= =
A
l
I IR V
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
90










For the circuit in Figure 5.34,
a. calculate the output voltage.
b. If a voltmeter of resistance 4000 O is connected across the output,
determine the reading of the voltmeter.
Example 16 :
Figure 5.34
O 000 4
V 2 1
O 000 8
out
V
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
91
Solution :
a. The output voltage is given by




b. The connection between the voltmeter and 4000 O resistor is
parallel, thus the equivalent resistance is


Hence the new output voltage is given by




Therefore the reading of the voltmeter is 2.4 V.
V 12 ; 4000 ; 8000
2 1
= O = O = V R R
V
R R
R
V
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
2 1
2
out
V 0 . 4
out
= V
4000
1
4000
1 1
eq
+ =
R
12
4000 8000
4000
out
|
.
|

\
|
+
= V
O = 2000
eq
R
V 4 . 2
out
= V
12
2000 8000
2000
out
|
.
|

\
|
+
= V
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
92
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
Explain principles of potentiometer and Wheatstone
Bridge and their applications.
Use related equations such as
Learning Outcome:
5.9 Potentiometer and Wheatstone bridge ( hour)
w
w
w
.
k
m
p
h
.
m
a
t
r
i
k
.
e
d
u
.
m
y
/
p
h
y
s
i
c
s

x
3
2
1
R
R
R
R
=
l
l
R
R
x x
=
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
93
5.9.1 Potentiometer
Consider a potentiometer circuit is shown in Figure 5.35.









The potentiometer is balanced when the jockey (sliding contact)
is at such a position on wire AB that there is no current
through the galvanometer. Thus
5.9 Potentiometer and Wheatstone bridge
Figure 5.35
(Driver cell -accumulator)
Jockey
V
B
A
C
x
V
I
G
+ -
I
I I
Galvanometer reading = 0
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
94
When the potentiometer in balanced, the unknown voltage
(potential difference being measured) is equal to the
voltage across AC.


Potentiometer can be used to
compare the emfs of two cells.
measure an unknown emf of a cell.
measure the internal resistance of a cell.
Compare the emfs of two cells
In this case, a potentiometer is set up as illustrated in Figure
5.36, in which AB is a wire of uniform resistance and J is a
sliding contact (jockey) onto the wire.
An accumulator X maintains a steady current I through the wire
AB.

AC x
V V =
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
95













Initially, a switch S is connected to the terminal (1) and the
jockey moved until the emf c
1
exactly balances the potential
difference (p.d.) from the accumulator (galvanometer reading is
zero) at point C. Hence
Figure 5.36
X
B
A
I
G
I
(2)
(1)
2

S
I I
1

C
J
D
1
l
2
l
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
96






After that, the switch S is connected to the terminal (2) and the
jockey moved until the emf c
2
balances the p.d. from the
accumulator at point D. Hence
AC 1
V =
AC AC
IR V =
where
A
l
R
1
AC
=
and
1 1
l
A
I

|
.
|

\
|
=
(1)
then
AD 2
V =
AD AD
IR V =
where
A
l
R
2
AD
=
and
2 2
l
A
I

|
.
|

\
|
=
(2)
then
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
97
By dividing eq. (1) and eq. (2) then






Measure an unknown emf of a cell
By using the same circuit shown in Figure 5.36, the value of
unknown emf can be determined if the cell c
1
is replaced with a
standard cell.
A standard cell is one in which provides a constant and
accurately known emf. Thus the emf c
2
can be calculated by
using the equation (5.29).

2
1
2
1
l
l

=
2
1
2
1
l
A
I
l
A
I

|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
(5.29)
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
98
Measure the internal resistance of a cell
Consider a potentiometer circuit as shown in Figure 5.37.
Figure 5.37

B
A
I
G
I
1

0
l
C
J
S
R
r
I
I
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
99
An accumulator of emf c maintains a steady current I through
the wire AB.
Initially, a switch S is opened and the jockey J moved until the
emf c
1
exactly balances the emf c from the accumulator
(galvanometer reading is zero) at point C. Hence






After the switch S is closed, the current I
1
flows through the
resistance box R and the jockey J moved until the galvanometer
reading is zero (balanced condition) at point D as shown in
Figure 5.38.
AC 1
V =
AC AC
IR V = where
A
l
R
0
AC
=
and
0 1
l
A
I

|
.
|

\
|
=
(1)
then
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
100
Figure 5.38

B
A
I
G
I
1

J
S
R
r
I
I
1
I
D
l
1
I
1
I
1
I
1
I
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
101
Hence






From the equation of emf,


AD
V V =
AD AD
IR V =
where
A
l
R =
AD
and
l
A
I
V
|
.
|

\
|
=
(2)
then
r I V
1 1
+ =
1
1
I
V
r

=
R
V
I =
1
and
R
V
V
r
|
.
|

\
|

=
1
(3)
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
102
By substituting eqs. (1) and (2) into the eq. (3), we get





The value of internal resistance, r is determined by plotting
the graph of 1/l against 1/R .
Rearranging eq. (4) :
R
l
l l
r
|
.
|

\
|

=
0
R
l
l
r
|
.
|

\
|
= 1
0
(4)
c x m y + =
Then compare with
0 0
1 1 1
l R l
r
l
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
103
Therefore the graph is straight line as shown in Figure 5.39.
0
, Gradient
l
r
m =
0
1
l
R
1
l
1
0
Figure 5.39
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
104
Cells A and B and centre-zero galvanometer G are connected to a
uniform wire OS using jockeys X and Y as shown in 5.40.









a. the potential difference across OY when OY = 75.0 cm,
b. the potential difference across OY when Y touches S and the
galvanometer is balanced,
c. the internal resistance of the cell A,
d. the emf of cell A.
Example 17 :
Figure 5.40
A
S
O
G
B
X
Y
The length of the uniform wire OS is
1.00 m and its resistance is 12 O.
When OY is 75.0 cm, the
galvanometer does not show any
deflection when OX= 50.0 cm. If Y
touches the end S of the wire, OX =
62.5 cm when the galvanometer is
balanced. The emf of the cell B is 1.0
V. Calculate
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
105
Solution :
a. Given









When G = 0 (balance condition), thus

V 0 . 1 ; 12 m; 00 . 1
B OS OS
= O = = R l
m 50 . 0 m; 75 . 0
OX1 OY1
= = l l
A

S
O
G
B

X
Y
0 =
OY1
l
OX1
l
Since wire OS is uniform thus
OS
OS
1 OX
OX1
R
l
l
R
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
and
O =
|
.
|

\
|
= 0 . 6 12
00 . 1
50 . 0
OX1
R
O =
|
.
|

\
|
= 0 . 9 12
00 . 1
75 . 0
OY1
R
B OX1
V =
OX1 1 OX1
R I V =
and
1
I
1
I
1
I
1
I
1
I
B OX1 1
R I = ( ) 0 . 1 0 . 6
1
= I
A 17 . 0
1
= I
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
106
Solution :
a. Therefore the potential difference across OY is given by



b. Given

V 0 . 1 ; 12 m; 00 . 1
B OS OS
= O = = R l
OY1 1 OY1
R I V =
( ) 0 . 9 17 . 0
OY1
= V
V 53 . 1
OY1
= V
m 625 . 0 m; 00 . 1
OX2 OY2
= = l l
A

S
O
G
B

X
Y
0 =
OY2
l
OX2
l
2
I
2
I
2
I
2
I
2
I
Since wire OS is uniform thus
OS
OS
2 OX
OX2
R
l
l
R
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
and
O =
|
.
|

\
|
= 5 . 7 12
00 . 1
625 . 0
OX2
R
O =
|
.
|

\
|
= 12 12
00 . 1
00 . 1
OY2
R
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
107
Solution :
b. When G = 0 (balance condition), thus




Therefore the potential difference across OY is given by



c. The emf of cell A is given by

For case in the question (a) :
V 0 . 1 ; 12 m; 00 . 1
B OS OS
= O = = R l
B OX2
V =
OX2 2 OX2
R I V =
and
B OX2 2
R I = ( ) 0 . 1 5 . 7
2
= I
A 13 . 0
2
= I
OY2 2 OY2
R I V =
( )12 13 . 0
OY2
= V
V 56 . 1
OY2
= V
( ) r R I + =
A
) (
1 OY 1 A
r R I + =
( ) r + = 0 . 9 17 . 0
A
(1)
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
108
Solution :
c. For case in the question (b) :




(1) = (2):


d. The emf of cell A is
V 0 . 1 ; 12 m; 00 . 1
B OS OS
= O = = R l
) (
2 OY 2 A
r R I + =
( ) r + = 12 13 . 0
A
(2)
( ) ( ) r r + = + 12 13 . 0 0 . 9 17 . 0
O = 65 . 0 r
( ) r + = 0 . 9 17 . 0
A
( ) 65 . 0 0 . 9 17 . 0
A
+ =
V 64 . 1
A
=
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
109
It is used to measured the unknown resistance of the
resistor.
Figure 5.41 shows the Wheatstone bridge circuit consists of a
cell of emf c (accumulator), a galvanometer , know resistances
(R
1
, R
2
and R
3
) and unknown resistance R
x
.









The Wheatstone bridge is said to be balanced when no current
flows through the galvanometer.
5.9.2 Wheatstone bridge

B
A G
C
D
1
R
2
R
3
R
x
R
0 =
I
I
2
I
1
I
2
I
1
I
Figure 5.41
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
110
Hence
then

Therefore
Since


Dividing gives
1 CB AC
I I I = =
2 DB AD
I I I = =
and
Potential at C = Potential at D
AD AC
V V =
BD BC
V V = and
IR V =
3 2 1 1
R I R I =
thus
and
x 2 2 1
R I R I =
x 2
3 2
2 1
1 1
R I
R I
R I
R I
=
3
1
2
x
R
R
R
R
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
(5.30)
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
111
The application of the Wheatstone bridge is Metre Bridge.
Figure 5.42 shows a Metre bridge circuit.











The metre bridge is balanced when the jockey J is at such a
position on wire AB that there is no current through the
galvanometer. Thus the current I
1
flows through the resistance
R
x
and R but current I
2
flows in the wire AB.
= 0
Accumulator
Jockey
Thick copper
strip
(Unknown
resistance)
(resistance box)
Wire of uniform
resistance
x
R
A

G
B
R
J
2
l
1
l
Figure 5.42
I
I
1
I
2
I
1
I
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
112
Let V
x
: p.d. across R
x
and V : p.d. across R,
At balance condition,

By applying Ohms law, thus

Dividing gives

AJ x
V V =
JB
V V =
and
AJ 2 x 1
R I R I =
JB 2 1
R I R I = and
A
l
R
1
AJ
=
JB 2
AJ 2
1
x 1
R I
R I
R I
R I
= where and
A
l
R
2
JB
=
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
A
l
A
l
R
R
2
1
x
R
l
l
R
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
1
x
(5.31)
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
113
An unknown length of platinum wire 0.920 mm in diameter is placed
as the unknown resistance in a Wheatstone bridge as shown in
Figure 5.43.








Resistors R
1
and R
2
have resistance of 38.0 O and 46.0 O
respectively. Balance is achieved when the switch closed and R
3
is
3.48 O. Calculate the length of the platinum wire if its resistivity is
10.6 10
8
O m.
Example 18 :
Figure 5.43
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
114
Solution :

At balance condition, the ammeter reading is zero thus the
resistance of the platinum wire is given by




From the definition of resistivity, thus
; 0 . 46 ; 0 . 38 m; 10 920 . 0
2 1
3
O = O = =

R R d
; m 10 6 . 10 ; 48 . 3
8
3

= O = R
1
2
3
x
R
R
R
R
=
O = 21 . 4
x
R
0 . 38
0 . 46
48 . 3
x
=
R
l
A R

x
=
4
2
d
A
t
= and
l
d R

4
2
x
t
=
( ) ( )
l 4
10 920 . 0 21 . 4
10 6 . 10
2
3
8

t
=
m 4 . 26 = l
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
115
Exercise 5.5 :
1. In Figure 5.44, PQ is a uniform wire of length 1.0 m and
resistance 10.0 O.














ANS. : 0.50 V; 7.5 O; 25.0 cm; 25.0 cm
2
S
1

P
Q
G
2

T
1
R
2
R
1
S
Figure 5.44
c
1
is an accumulator of emf 2.0 V
and negligible internal resistance.
R
1
is a 15 O resistor and R
2
is a
5.0 O resistor when S
1
and S
2

open, galvanometer G is balanced
when QT is 62.5 cm. When both S
1

and S
2
are closed, the balance
length is 10.0 cm. Calculate
a. the emf of cell c
2
.
b. the internal resistance of cell c
2
.
c. the balance length QT when S
2

is opened and S
1
closed.
d. the balance length QT when S
1

is opened and S
2
closed.
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
116
R
2. The circuit shown in Figure 5.45 is known as a Wheatstone
bridge.










Determine the value of the resistor R such that the current
through the 85.0 O resistor is zero.
(Physics,3
th
edition, James S. Walker, Q93, p.731)
ANS. : 7.50 O
Exercise 5.5 :
Figure 5.45
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
117
Exercise 5.5 :
3. A potentiometer with slide-wire of length 100 cm and
resistance of 5.0 O, is connected to a driver cell of emf 2.0 V
and negligible internal resistance. Calculate
a. the length of the potentiometer wire needed to balance a
potential difference of 1.5 V,
b. the resistance which must be connected in series with the
slide-wire to give a potential difference of 7.0 mV across
the whole wire,
c. the emf c of a dry cell which is balanced by 80 cm of the
wire, setup as in part (b).
ANS. : 75.0 cm; 1424 O; 5.6 mV
PHYSICS CHAPTER 5
118
Next Chapter
CHAPTER 6 :
Magnetic field