MATERIAL CHARACTERIZATION

Main Objective
Mechanical, electrical and magnetic properties show strong dependence on structural characteristics of a material. Therefore, material characterization is very important part of any structure-property correlation exercise. The objective of this course is to introduce structural characterization of materials at different scales and using different sources to get the required information.

MICROSCOPY
SCIENCE WHICH DEALS WITH THE STUDY OF MICRO/ SMALL THINGS, NOT VISIBLE TO THE NAKED EYE.

The Microscope

The History
Many people experimented with making microscopes The first microscope was 6 feet long!!! The Greeks & Romans used lenses to magnify objects over 1000 years ago.

The History
Hans & Zacharias Janssen of Holland in the 1590s created the first compound microscope

Zacharias Jansen 1588-1631

The First Microscope

The History
Anthony van Leeuwenhoek and Robert Hooke made improvements by working on the lenses

Anthony van Leeuwenhoek 1632-1723

Hooke Microscope

Robert Hooke 1635-1703

What is Microscope?
This is an optical instrument containing one or more lenses that produce an enlarged image of an object placed in the focal plane of the lens 1. Transmission: beam of light passes through the sample e.g. Polarizing or Biological microscope Samples are usually fine powder or thin slices (transparent) 2. Reflection: beam of light reflected off the sample surface e.g. Metallurgical or reflected light microscope Surface of materials, especially opaque ones

How a Microscope Works

Convex Lenses are curved glass used to make microscopes (and glasses etc.)

Convex Lenses bend light and focus it in one spot.

How a Microscope Works

Ocular Lens (Magnifies Image) Objective Lens (Gathers Light, Magnifies And Focuses Image Inside Body Tube)

Body Tube (Image Focuses)

Bending Light: The objective (bottom) convex lens magnifies and focuses (bends) the image inside the body tube and the ocular convex (top) lens of a microscope magnifies it (again).

Types of microscopes
Optical/Light microscopes Bright field microscope Dark field microscope Phase contrast microscope Fluorescent microscope Electron microscopes Transmission electron microscope Scanning electron microscope Scanning tunneling microscope

The Parts of a Optical Microscope

Ocular Lens Body Tube

Nose Piece

Arm
Objective Lenses

Stage Clips
Diaphragm Light Source

Stage Coarse Adj. Fine Adjustment

Base

Skip to Magnification Section

Body Tube
The body tube holds the objective lenses and the ocular lens at the proper distance

Diagram

Rotating Nose Piece

The Nose Piece holds the objective lenses and can be turned to increase the magnification

Diagram

Objective Lenses
The Objective Lenses increase magnification (usually from 5x to 40x)

Diagram

Stage
Supports the slide/specimen

Diagram

Stage Clips
These 2 clips hold the slide/specimen in place on the stage.

Diagram

Diaphragm
The Diaphragm controls the amount of light on the slide/specimen

Turn to let more light in or to make dimmer.

Diagram

Light Source
Metallurgical microscopes the light source is located within the microscope tube. This is achieved by a plain glass reflector installed in the tube.

Ocular Lens/Eyepiece
Magnifies the specimen image

Diagram

Arm
Used to support the microscope when carried. Holds the body tube, nose piece and objective lenses

Diagram

Coarse Adjustment Knob

Moves the stage up and down (quickly) for focusing your image

Diagram

Fine Adjustment Knob

This knob moves the stage SLIGHTLY to sharpen the image

Diagram

Base
Supports the microscope

Diagram

Eyepiece Lense

Usually has a power of 10 x

Magnification

Magnification
To determine your magnificationyou just multiply the eye lens by the objective lens eye 10x Objective 40x:10 x 40 = 400
So the object is 400 times larger
Objective Lens have their magnification written on them.

eye lenses usually magnifies by 10x

Optical Principles
The optical principles of microscopes include image formation, magnification and resolution.

Lenses
Collimated light rays focus at a specific point after passing through a convex lense called the focal point

Distance between center of lens and focal point is the focal length Strength of lens related to focal length
Short focal length more magnification
31

32

Image formation by single lens

Simple Magnification

Lens formula and magnification

Thin lens equation

1 1 1 f u v

Magnification M

v M u f v f M u f f

Two-stage projection microscope

Image formation can be illustrated by the behaviour of a light path in a compound light microscope

Light rays from the object firstly converge at the objective lens and are then focused at position B to form a magnified inverted image. The light rays from the image are further converged by the second lens (projector lens) to form a final magnified image of an object at C.

When we examine microstructure with our eyes, the light path in a microscope goes through an eyepiece instead of projector lens to form a virtual image on the human eye retina

Object (O) placed just outside focal point of objective lens A real inverted (intermediate) image (I1) forms at or close to focal point of eyepiece. The eyepiece produces a further magnified virtual inverted image (I2).

The total magnification should be the objective lens magnification Multiplied by eyepiece magnification

Total Magnification

(v1 f1 )( v2 f 2 ) M f1 f 2

M M 1M 2

Working of Optical system

Transmission Illumination

Reflected Illumination

70X

Scanning Electron Micrograph

300X

1400X Light Micrograph

2800X

High temperature superconductor Barium yttrium copper oxide

Resolution
Resolution refers to the minimum distance between two points at which they can be visibly distinguished as two points.

Higher resolution

Lower resolution

Resolution(or resolving power)

Closest spacing of two points which can be clearly seen through the microscope to be separate entities

Actual

What We Might See

Even if we magnify an image of two objects, we can not distinguish them unless we have adequate resolution. The resolution of a microscope is controlled by the diffraction of light.
Light with short wavelength is diffracted at a smaller angle. Diffraction of light plays a paramount role in limiting the resolving power of any optical instrument.

Airy rings Wherever light passes through an aperture, diffraction occurs so that a parallel beam of light is transformed into series of cones On 2D projection the cones are seen as circles and are known as Airy rings

Effect of aperture size

Diffraction of Light
Light waves interfere constructively and destructively.

Cones of light beam after diffraction

1st 2nd 3rd

film

Resolution of an Optical Microscope Physical Limit

Owing to diffraction, the image of a point is no longer a point

but an airy disc after passing through a lens with finite aperture The disc images (diffraction patterns) of two adjacent points may overlap if the two points are close together. The two points can no longer be distinguished if the discs overlap too much

Airy rings Rayleigh Criterion

Central spot 84% of light intensity

Rayleigh Criterion When the maximum of intensity of an Airy disc coincides with the first minimum of the second, then the two points can just be distinguished

Resolution of Microscope Rayleigh Criteria

Image 1 Image 2

The resolution of a microscope (R) is defined as the minimum distance between two Airy disks that can be distinguished. Resolution is a function of microscope parameters as shown in the following equation.
Resolution limit = d1/2 =r1

0.61 r1 sin

Numerical Aperture

To get best resolution

400 nm green light

0.61 r1 sin

sin approaching 1 by using as large an aperture possible (1.7) can be increased by using high refractive index medium

Resolution of human eye 0.2 mm

Depth of field
The range of positions for the object for which our eye can detect no change in the sharpness of the image is known as the depth of field. It is denoted by h

1.22 h sin tan

Where, Geometric relation among the depth of field (h), the half angle entering the objective lens() and the size of Airy disk (d). The image is out of focus when the object lies either closer to or farther from the lens

Depth of focus

The range of positions at which the image can be viewed without appearing out of focus, for a fixed position of the object In other words, it is the range of screen positions in which and images can be projected in focus.

dv M du
2