Factors Affecting Second Language Learning (Ref.: Lightbown and Spada, Ch.

3)

Intelligence
Aptitude Motivation and Attitude Learner preferences Learner beliefs

Age of acquisition

The Good Language Learner

Are there personal characteristics that make one learner more successful than another?
In other words, in your experience, as an English learner, which characteristics seem to you most likely to be associated with success in L2 acquisition (put them in order)?

Before looking at learner characteristics

Three difficulties in research on learner characteristics and SLA:

1)

It is not possible to directly observe and measure qualities such as motivation, personality, aptitude, and intelligence. Moreover, these variables are not independent of one another. A learners language proficiency can be defined and measured in many ways. A correlation of two factors does not mean there is a causal relationship between them.

2) 3)

Intelligence has multiple types:

Traditionally, intelligence refers to the mental abilities that are measured by an IQ (intelligence quotient) test. (It usually measures only two types of intelligence: verbal/linguistic and mathematical/logical intelligence)
There are other types of intelligence (such as spatial intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, musical intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, and intrapersonal intelligence).

Intelligence

Research findings:

Intelligence, especially measured by verbal IQ tests, may be a strong factor when it comes to learning that involves language analysis and rule learning.

Aptitude

Aptitude refers to potential for achievement. Aptitude for language learning is usually composed of four different types of abilities:
1) 2) 3) 4)

The ability to identify and memorize new sounds The ability to understand the function of particular words in sentences The ability to figure out grammatical rules from language samples The ability to memorize new words

Aptitude

Research findings:
1)

Earlier research revealed a substantial relationship between aptitude for language learning and performance in foreign language that was taught with grammar-translation or audiolingual methods.

2)

However, aptitude seems irrelevant to L2 learning with the adoption of a more communicative approach to teaching (i.e., with a focus on meaning rather than on form).

Aptitude

Conclusions:

Successful language learners are not necessarily strong in all of the components of aptitude. (e.g., Some may have strong memories but only average ability to figure out grammatical rules.)

Teachers can select appropriate teaching approaches and activities based on learners aptitude profiles to accommodate their differences in aptitude.

Personality

There are a number of personality characteristics that are likely to affect L2 learning, such as

Extroversion vs. introversion

Inhibition vs. risk-taking

Self-esteem (self-confidence) Anxiety

Empathy

Personality

Research findings:
1.

Some studies have found that learners success in language learning is associated with extroversion. Inhibition is a negative force for second language pronunciation performance. Personality may be a major factor only in the acquisition of conversational skills, not in the acquisition of literacy skills.

2.

3.

Motivation & Attitude

Purpose

Types of motivation
Source

(in terms of communicative needs):

Intrinsic (Internal)
The learner wishes to learn L2 for personal growth and cultural enrichment.
The learner wishes to achieve practical goals using L2 (e.g., for a
career).

Extrinsic (External)
Someone else (e.g., the learners parents) wishes the learner to know L2 for an integrative reason.
External power wants the learner to learn L2 for a practical purpose (e.g., a
corporation asks its staff to get language training).

Integrative

Instrumental

Motivation & Attitude

Research findings:
1)

Both integrative and instrumental types of motivation are related to success in L2 learning.

2)

Research strongly favors intrinsic motivation, especially for long-term retention.

Motivation & Attitude

An individuals identity and attitudes towards the second language community:

Positive
Negative

learning L2 is enrichment.
learning L2 is resentment.

Social dynamics and power relationships between L1 and L2.

Minority group members learning the language of a majority group may have different attitudes and motivation from those of majority group members learning a minority language (e.g., the learning of English in Africa).

Motivation & Attitude

Motivation in the classroom setting:

Motivating students in to the lesson. Varying the activities, tasks, and materials to increase students interest levels. Using cooperative rather than competitive goals to increase students self-confidence. Creating a supportive and non-threatening learning atmosphere.

Learner Preferences
(Learning Styles)

Learning style :
An individuals natural, habitual, and preferred way of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and skills.

Types of learning styles related to L2 learning:

Perceptual learning styles:

visual, auditory, kinesthetic, tactile

Cognitive learning styles (e.g., reflectivity vs.

impulsivity)

Learner Preferences
(Learning Styles)

1) 2) 3)

Research findings and implications:

No particular teaching or learning method can suit the needs of all learners. No one style is better than others. Students should be encouraged to stretch their learning styles so that they will be more empowered in a variety of learning situations.

Learner Beliefs

Virtually all learners, particularly older learners, have strong beliefs about how their language instruction should be delivered. Learner beliefs are usually based on previous learning experiences.

Learner Beliefs

Research findings: The available research indicates that learner beliefs can be strong mediating factors in learners L2 learning process.
E.g., L2 learners progress was negatively affected by an instructional approach that was not consistent with their beliefs about the best ways for them to learn.

Learner Beliefs

Implications:
1)

Learners preference for learning will influence the kinds of strategies they choose.

2)

Teachers can use this information to help learners expand their repertoire of learning strategies and thus develop greater flexibility in their second language learning.

Age of Acquisition

The relationship needs to take into account 1) the stage of L2 development, 2) the goals of learning L2, 3) the context in which the learner learns L2.

Age of Acquisition

Research findings: 1) L2 development in informal language learning environments where the TL is used primarily

Children can eventually speak the L2 with native-like fluency, but not their parents and older learners Adults and adolescents can make more rapid progress toward general mastery of an L2 in contexts where they can make use of the language on a daily basis

Age of Acquisition

Research findings:

2) L2 development in formal and noncommunicative language learning environments (i.e., non-reform classrooms)

In the early stages of the L2 development, older learners (adolescents and adults) are more efficient than younger learners (children).
It is more difficult for post-puberty learners to attain native-like mastery of the spoken language

Age of Acquisition

Conclusions (II):

One or two hours a week will not produce very advanced L2 speakers, no matter how young they were when they began learning.

THE END!