Chapter 28B - EMF and Terminal P.D.

A PowerPoint Presentation by
Paul E. Tippens, Professor of Physics Southern Polytechnic State University

2007

Objectives: After completing this

module, you should be able to:
Solve problems involving emf, terminal potential difference, internal resistance, and load resistance. Solve problems involving power gains and losses in a simple circuit containing internal and load resistances. Work problems involving the use of ammeters and voltmeters in dc circuits.

EMF and Terminal Potential Difference

The emf E is the open-circuit potential difference. The terminal voltage VT for closed circuit is reduced due to internal resistance r inside source.
Open Circuit E = 1.5 V Closed Circuit VT = 1.45 V

r
Applying Ohms law to battery r, gives:

VT = E - Ir

Finding Current in Simple Circuit

Ohms law: Current I is the ratio of emf E to total resistance R + r.

VT = IR VT
R
E

E I= Rr
Cross multiplying gives:
I

IR + Ir = E; VT = IR
VT = E - Ir

Battery

Example 2. A 3-V battery has an internal resistance of 0.5 W and is connected to a load resistance of 4 W. What current is delivered and what is the terminal potential difference VT? E 3V R I= r R r 4 W 0.5 W
I = 0.667 A VT = E Ir VT = 3 V (0.667 A)(0.5 W) VT = 2.67 V
I R=4W E=3V

r = 0.5 W

Power in Circuits
Recall that the definition of power is work or energy per unit of time. The following apply:

V P VI ; P I R; P R
2

The first of these is normally associated with the power gains and losses through emfs; the latter two are more often associated with external loads.

Power, Potential, and EMF

Consider simple circuit:

Terminal Voltage

VT
E

VT = E - Ir
+
I

Multiply each term by I: VTI = EI - I2r

Battery

The power delivered to the external circuit is equal to the power developed in the emf less the power lost through internal resistance.

Example 3. The 3-V battery in Ex. 2 had an internal resistance of 0.5 W and a load resistance of 4 W. Discuss the power used in the circuit.
From Ex. 2, we found:

I = 0.667 A

VT = 2.67 V
I

Power developed in emf: EI = (3.0 V)(0.667 A) = 2.0 W Power lost in internal r:

R=4W
E=3V

r = 0.5 W

I2r = (0.667 A)2(0.5 W) = 0.222 W

Example 3 (Cont.). Discuss the power used in the simple circuit below.
Power in emf: EI = 2.00 W Power loss:

I2r = 0.222 W

Power lost in external load R:

I2R = (0.667)2(4 W) = 1.78 W

This power can also be found using VT = 2.67 V

R=4W E=3V

r = 0.5 W

VTI = (2.67)(0.667 A) = 1.78 W

Actual power used externally.

Example 3 (Cont.). Discuss the power used in the simple circuit below.
Power in emf: EI = 2.00 W Power loss in internal r:

I2r = 0.222 W
I

R=4W E=3V

Power lost in external load R:

I2R = VTI = 1.78 W

VTI = EI - I2r

r = 0.5 W

1.78 W = 2.00 W 0.222 W

A Discharging EMF
When a battery is discharging, there is a GAIN in energy E as chemical energy is converted to electrical energy. At the same time, energy is LOST through internal resistance Ir.

12 V, 1 W E
r

Discharging

I=2A

Discharging: VBA = E - Ir 12 V - (2 A)(1 W) = 12 V - 2 V = 10 V If VB= 20 V, then VA = 30 V; Net Gain = 10 V

GAIN LOSS

Charging: Reversing Flow Through EMF

When a battery is charged (current against normal output), energy is lost through chemical changes E and also through internal resistance Ir. Charging: VAB = E + Ir

12 V, 1 W E
r

Charging

I=2A

-12 V - (2 A)(1 W) = -12 V - 2 V = -14 V

If VA= 20 V, then VB = 6.0 V; Net Loss = 14 V

LOSS

LOSS

Power Gain for Discharging EMF

Recall that electric power is either VI or I2R When a battery is discharging, there is a GAIN in power EI as chemical energy is converted to electrical energy. At the same time, power is LOST through internal resistance I2r.

12 V, 1 W E
r

Discharging

I=2A

Net Power Gain: VBAI = E I- I2r (12 V)(2 A) - (2 A)2(1 W) = 24 W - 4 W = 20 W

Power Lost on Charging a Battery

Recall that electric power is either VI or I2R

When a battery is charged (current against normal output), power is lost through chemical changes EI and through internal resistance Ir2. Net Power Lost= EI + I2r

12 V, 1 W E
r

Charging

I=2A

(12 V)(2 A) + (2 A)2(1 W) = 24 W + 4 W = 24 W

Example 4: A 24-V generator is used to charge a 12-V battery. For the generator, r1 = 0.4 W and for the battery r2 = 0.6 W. The load resistance is 5 W. 12 V .6 W First find current I:

E 24V 12V I R 5W 0.4W 0.6W

Circuit current: I = 2.00 A What is the terminal voltage VG across the generator?

E2

r2

I
5W .4 W

R
-

24 V

E1 r1

VT = E Ir = 24 V (2 A)(0.4 W)

VG = 23.2 V

Example 4: Find the terminal voltage VB across the battery.

Circuit current: I = 2.00 A

12 V

.6 W

E2

r2

VB = E + Ir = 12 V + (2 A)(0.4 W) Terminal VB = 13.6 V

Note: The terminal voltage across a device in which the current is reversed is greater than its emf.
+

I
5W .4 W

R
-

24 V

E1 r1

For a discharging device, the terminal voltage is less than the emf because of internal resistance.

Ammeters and Voltmeters

A
+

Emf

Rheostat

Voltmeter

Source of EMF

Ammeter

Rheostat

The Ammeter
An ammeter is an instrument used to measure currents. It is always connected in series and its resistance must be small (negligible change in I). A E
+

rg
Digital readout indicates current in A Ammeter has Internal rg

The ammeter draws just enough current Ig to operate the meter; Vg = Ig rg

Galvanometer: A Simple Ammeter

The galvanometer uses torque created by small currents as a means to indicate electric current. A current Ig causes the needle to deflect left or right. Its resistance is Rg.
20 10 0 10 20

The sensitivity is determined by the current required for deflection. (Units are in Amps/div.) Examples: 5 A/div; 4 mA/div.

Example 5. If 0.05 A causes full-scale deflection for the galvanometer below, what is its sensitivity?
0.05A mA Sensitivity 2.50 20 div div
20 10 0 10 20

Assume Rg = 0.6 W and that a current causes the pointer to move to 10. What is the voltage drop across the galvanometer?
2.5mA I 10div 25mA div

Vg = (25 mA)(0.6 W

Vg = 15 mV

Operation of an Ammeter
The galvanometer is often the working element of both ammeters and voltmeters. A shunt resistance in parallel with the galvanometer allows most of the current I to bypass the meter. The whole device must be connected in series with the main circuit.

Ig I

Rg

Rs

Is I = Is + Ig

The current Ig is negligible and only enough to operate the galvanometer. [ Is >> Ig ]

Shunt Resistance
Ig Current Ig causes full-scale deflection of ammeter of resistance Rg. What Rs is needed to read current I + from battery VB? VB

Ammeter Rg A Rs

Is
R

Junction rule at A:

I = 10 A

I = Ig + Is
Or

Is = I - Ig

(I Ig)Rs = IgRg
Rs I g Rg I Ig

Voltage rule for Ammeter: 0 = IgRg IsRs; IsRs = IgRg

Example 6. An ammeter has an internal resistance of 5 W and gives fullscale defection for 1 mA. To read 10 A full scale, what shunt resistance Rs is needed? (see figure)

Ig
1 mA

Ammeter

rg
A rg

5W

Rs

I g Rg I Ig

VB -

R I = 10 A

(0.001A)(5 W) Rs 10 A (0.001 W

Rs = 5.0005 x 10-4 W

The shunt draws 99.999% of the external current.

Operation of an Voltmeter
The voltmeter must be connected in parallel and must have high resistance so as not to disturb the main circuit. A multiplier resistance Rm is added in series with the galvanometer so that very little current is drawn from the main circuit. The voltage rule gives:

Ig I

Rg

Rm

VB
VB = IgRg + IgRm

Multiplier Resistance
Current Ig causes full-scale deflection of meter whose resistance is Rg. What Rm is needed to read voltage VB of the battery?

Voltmeter

Rg

Rm

VB
I

VB = IgRg + IgRm

IgRm = VB - IgRg
Rm VB I g Rg Ig

Which simplifies to:

VB Rm Rg Ig

Example 7. A voltmeter has an internal resistance of 5 W and gives fullscale deflection for 1 mA. To read 50 V full scale, what multiplier resistance Rm is needed? (see figure)
VB Rm Rg Ig

Ig
1 mA

Voltmeter

5W

Rg

Rm

VB
I

50 V Rm 5W 0.001A

Rm = 49995 W

The high resistance draws negligible current in meter.

Summary of Formulas:
Discharging: VT = E - Ir
Power: VTI = EI - I2r
+ E
r

I
Discharging

Charging: VT = E + Ir Power: VTI = EI + I2r

I
Charging

Summary (Continued)
Ammeter Ig Rg Voltmeter

Rg

Rm

VB

A Rs R

VB
I

Rs

I g Rg I Ig

VB Rm Rg Ig

CONCLUSION: Chapter 28B EMF and Terminal P.D.