NONTRADITIONAL (OR)

UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING

History of Manufacturing
Manufacturing started during 5000 4000 BC Wood work,ceramics,stone and metal work Steel Production 600-800 AD Industrial Revolution 1750 AD: Machine tools run by invention of steam engine Mass Production and Interchangeable Parts Computer Controlled Machines 1965 CNC,FMS systems

Historical development of materials - The Early Days

Period Egypt ~3100 B.C. to ~ 300 B.C Greece ~1100 B.C. to ~146 B.C Roman Empire ~500 B.C. to 476 A.D Middle Ages 476 to 1492 Renaissance 14th to 16th centuries Before 4000 B.C 4000-3000 B.C. Metals and Casting Gold,copper and meteoritic iron Copper casting,stone and metal molds,lost wax process,silver,lead,tin,bron ze Bronze casting Forming Process Hammering Stamping Jewelry

3000-2000 B.C. 2000-1000 B.C. 1000-1 B.C. 1A.D 1000 A.D 1000-1500 A.D.

Wire by cutting and drawing, gold leaf

Wrought iron,brass Cast iron, cast steel Zinc steel Blast furnace, type metals,casting of bells,pewter Stamping of coins Armor,coinage,for ging steel swords Wire drawing,gold silver smith work

Historical development of materials - The Industrial Revolution

Industrial Revolution 1750-1850 1500-1600 A.D. Cast iron cannon, tinplate Water power for metal working,rolling mill for coinage Rolling(lead,gold,silver ) Shape rolling(lead) Extrusion (lead pipe), deep drawing, rolling(iron bars and rods) Steam hammer, steel rolling,seamless tube piercing,steel rail rolling, continuous rolling , electroplating

1600-1700 A.D.

Permanent mold casting,brass from copper and metallic zinc

1700-1800 A.D.

Malleable cast iron,crucible steel

1800-1900 A.D.

Centrifugal casting,Bessemer process,electrolytic aluminum,nickel steels,Babbitt, galvanized steel, powder metallurgy, tungsten steel, open hearth steel

Historical development of materials - The Modern Age

WW I and WW II 1900-1920 A.D. 1920-1940 A.D. 1940-1950 A.D. Space Age 1950-1960 A.D. Die casting Lost wax for engineering parts Ceramic mold, nodular iron, semiconductors,continuou s casting Squeeze casting, single crystal turbine blades Compacted graphite,vacuum casting,organically bonded sand,automation of molding and pouring, large aluminum castings for aircraft structures rapid solidification technology Tube rolling, hot extrusion Tungsten wire from powder Extrusion (steel),swaging, powder metal for engineering parts Cold extrusion (steel),explosive forming,thermo mechanical treatment Hydrostatic extrusion,electroforming Precision forging,isothermal forging, super plastic forming,die design by analytical methods, net shape forming

1960-1970 A.D 1970-1980 s

Requirements of a good manufacturing system

Product should meet design requirement Economical Process Quality should be built into the system Should be flexible and responsive to new technology High productivity: Best utilization of man, material, machine, capital and available resources.

Steps in Modern Manufacturing

Definition of product need, marketing information

Conceptual design and evaluation Feasibility study

Design analysis;codes/standards review; physical and analytical models

CAM and CAPP Production

Prototype production testing and evaluation Inspection and quality assurance CAD Production drawings; Instruction manuals Packaging; marketing and sales literature

Material Specification; process and equipment selection; safety review

Product

Pilot Production

Manufacturing of a Paper Clip

What is the function How long does it last How critical is the part Material

Dimension Method of manufacturing Function based design

Style

Metallic - what type Non metallic plastic Diameter of clip Shape of clip Manual Automated Stress, Strain Life of clip Stiffness Appearance,Color,Finish Plating,painting

AISI 1010 welded tubing, assembly resistance welded and electrostatically painted AISI 1010,swaged and cadmium plated AISI 1020,forging and chromium plated

Aluminum alloy forging, polished and buffed

Forged aluminum tubing(alloy similar to 6063), polished and buffed

Manufacturing of a bicycle

AISI 1008,press formed resistance welded and painted

AISI 1010, luster finished AISI 1008, press coil stock,profile formed,welded and plated milled,resistance welded and chromium plated formed,welded and plated Cold drawn medium carbon steel,( similar to AISI 1035) bright zinc plated

AISI 1020 tubing, machine threaded and painted

AISI 1010,stamped and coined and chromium plated AISI 1010, stamped and chromium plated

Seamless AISI 1020 tubing swaged tube sections brazed into fork crown,painted

Headed brass,nickel plated Aluminum permanent mold casting,machined , polished Hardened high-carbon and buffed steel,thread rolled and chromium plated AISI 1040 forging,carburized and chromium plated Case hardened forging quality steel parts, black oxide coating

AISI 1010,stamped and chromium plated

The requirements that lead to the development of nontraditional machining.

Very high hardness and strength of the material. (above 400 HB.) The work piece is too flexible or slender to support the cutting or grinding forces. The shape of the part is complex, such as internal and external profiles, or small diameter holes. Surface finish or tolerance better than those obtainable conventional process. Temperature rise or residual stress in the work piece are undesirable.

NONTRADITIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES

1. Mechanical Energy Processes (USM, WJC, AJM)
- high velocity stream of abrasives or fluid (or both)

2. Electrochemical Processes (ECM)

- reverse of electroplating

3. Thermal Processes (EDM, Wire EDM, EBM, LBM, PAC)

- vaporizing of a small area of work surface

4. Chemical Processes (CHM, Chemical Blanking, PCM)

1. Material is either very hard, brittle or both;

Nontraditional Processes Used When:

or material is very ductile: difficult material

2. Part geometry is complex or geometric requirements impossible with conventional methods: difficult geometry 3. Need to avoid surface damage or contamination that often accompanies

1. Mechanical Energy Processes

Ultrasonic machining (USM) Water jet cutting (WJC)

Abrasive jet machining (AJM)

1a) Ultrasonic Machining (USM & UW)

Abrasives in a slurry are driven at high velocity against work by a vibrating tool (low amplitude & high frequency)
Tool oscillation is perpendicular to work surface Abrasives accomplish material removal

USM Applications
Used only on hard and brittle work

materials: ceramics, glass, carbides, and

hard metals.

Shapes include non-round holes, holes

along a curved axis

Coining operations - pattern on tool is

imparted to a flat work surface

Produces virtually stress free shapes

1b) Water Jet Cutting (WJC)

Uses high pressure, high velocity stream of water directed at work surface for cutting

5-axes water jet cutting 7 axis for trimming large parts

WJC Applications
Usually automated using CNC or industrial robots Best used to cut narrow slits in flat stock such as: plastic, textiles, composites, tile, and cardboard Not suitable for: brittle materials (e.g., glass) When used on metals, you need to add to the water stream: abrasive particles

Smallest kerf width about 0.4 mm for metals,

WJC Advantages
No crushing or burning of work surface

Minimum material loss

No environmental pollution

Ease of automation

1c) Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM) High velocity gas stream containing abrasive particles (aka: sand blasting or bead blasting)

Normally used as a finishing process rather

2. Electrochemical Machining Processes

Electrical energy used in combination with chemical reactions to remove material Reverse of: electroplating
Courtesy of AEG-Elotherm-Germany

Work material must be a: conductor

Feature dimensions

Electrochemical Machining (ECM) Material removal by anodic dissolution, using electrode (tool) in close proximity to work but separated by a rapidly flowing electrolyte

ECM Operation
Material is deplated from anode workpiece

(positive pole) and transported to a cathode

tool (negative pole) in an electrolyte bath

Electrolyte flows rapidly between two poles

to carry off deplated material, so it does not: plate onto the tool Electrode materials: Cu, brass, or stainless steel

 Die sinking - irregular shapes and contours for forging dies, plastic molds, and other tools Multiple hole drilling - many holes can be drilled simultaneously with ECM No burrs created no residual stress

ECM Applications

Schuster et al, Science 2000

Trimmer et al, APL 2003

Material Removal Rate of ECM

Based on Faraday's First Law: rate of metal dissolved is proportional to the current
MRR = Ar = CI where I = current; A = frontal area of the electrode

(mm2), r = feed rate (mm/s), and = efficiency M = specific removal rate with work material; coefficient C=
nrF
M = atomic weight of metal (kg/mol) r = density of metal (kg/m3), F = Faraday constant (Coulomb) n = valency of the ion;

Equations for ECM (Cont)

Gap, g

Resistance of Electrode:

g R =r A

Area, A

r is the resistivity of the electrolyte fluid (Ohmm)

Example: ECM through a plate

Aluminum plate, thickness t = 12 mm; Rectangular hole to be cut: L = 30mm, W = 10mm Applied current: I = 1200 amps. Efficiency of 95%,
30mm 10mm

Determine how = 3.4410-2take3/amps the Ideal C long it will mm to cut

Al

hole?

- other C values in Table 26.1

Solution:
Frontal Area, A = 30 10 = 300 mm2 Applying At 95% efficiency, Feed rate fr = CI/A fr= 0.95(3.44 10-2 mm3/amps)(1200 A)/(300 mm2)

MRR = Ar = CI

fr = 0.131 mm/s
Find machine Time: T= (12 mm)/(0.131 mm/s) = 91.8 s = 1.53 min

3. Thermal Energy Processes Overview

Very high temperatures, but only: locally
Material is removed by: vaporization

Problems and concerns:

Redeposition of vaporized metal Surface damage and metallurgical damage
to the new work surface In some cases, resulting finish is so poor that subsequent processing is required

3. Thermal Energy Processes

Electric discharge machining (EDM) Electric discharge wire cutting (Wire EDM) Electron beam machining (EBM) Laser beam machining (LBM) Plasma arc cutting or machining (PAC)

3a) Electric Discharge Machining (EDM)

One of the most widely used nontraditional processes Shape of finished work is inverse of tool shape Sparks occur across a small gap between tool and work

Work Materials in EDM

Work materials must be: electrically conducting Hardness and strength of work material are: not factors Material removal rate depends primarily on: melting point of work material Applications:
Molds and dies for injection molding and

3b) Wire EDM

EDM uses small diameter wire as electrode to cut a narrow kerf in work similar to a: bandsaw

 Weller Equation (Empirical);

Maximum rate:
where K = 664
(C1.23mm3/amps); I = discharge current; Tm = melt temp of work material RMR = KI
1 Tm.23

Material Removal Rate of EDM

While cutting, wire is continuously advanced between supply spool and take-up spool to: maintain a constant diameter

Actual material removal rate:

MRR = vf hwkerf

Wire EDM Applications

Ideal for stamp and die components
Since kerf is so narrow, it is often possible to fabricate punch and die in a single cut

Other tools and parts with

intricate outline shapes,

such as lathe form tools, extrusion dies, and flat

3c) Electron Beam Machining (EBM)

Part loaded inside a
vacuum chamber Beam is focused through electromagnetic lens, reducing diameter to as small as 0.025 mm Material is vaporized in a very localized area

EBM Applications
Ideal for micromachining
Drilling small diameter holes - down to 0.05 mm (0.002 in) Cutting slots only about 0.025 mm (0.001 in.) wide

Drilling holes with very high

depth-to-diameter ratios
Ratios greater than 100:1

3d) Laser Beam Machining (LBM)

Generally used for: drilling, slitting, slotting, scribing, and marking operations

Holes can be made down to 0.025 mm

3e) Plasma Arc Cutting (PAC)

Uses plasma stream at very high temperatures to cut metal 10,000C to 14,000C

Plasma arc generated between electrode in torch and anode workpiece

The plasma flows through water-cooled nozzle that constricts

Applications of PAC
Most applications of PAC involve cutting of flat metal sheets and plates Hole piercing and cutting along a defined path Can be operated by hand-held torch or automated by CNC Can cut any: electrically conductive metal

4. Chemical Machining (CHM)

CHM Process: Cleaning - to insure uniform etching Masking - a maskant (resist, chemically resistant to etchant) is applied to portions of work surface not to be etched Patterning of maskant Etching - part is immersed in etchant which chemically

Maskant - Photographic Resist Method Masking materials contain photosensitive

chemicals

Maskant is applied to work surface (dip coated, spin coated, or roller coated) and exposed to light

through a negative image of areas to be etched

These areas are then removed using photographic developing techniques

Remaining areas are vulnerable to etching

Applications:
Small parts on thin stock produced in high quantities

Material Removal Rate in CHM

Generally indicated as penetration rates, i.e. mm/min. Penetration rate unaffected by exposed surface area

Etching occurs downward and under the maskant

In general, d u 2d, Etch Factor: Fe=
(see Table 26.2 pg 637)

d u

Chemical Blanking
Uses CHM to cut very

thin sheetmetal
parts - down to 0.025 mm thick and/or for intricate cutting patterns Conventional punch and die does not work because stamping forces damage the thin
Parts made by chemical blanking (photo courtesy of Buckbee-Mears St. Paul).

CHM Possible Part Geometry Features

Very small holes

Holes that are not round

Narrow slots in slabs and plates

Micromachining
Shallow pockets and surface details in flat parts Special contoured shapes for mold and die applications

Chemical Machining (CM) Oldest nontraditional machining process. material is removed from a surface by chemical dissolution using chemical reagents or etchants like acids and alkaline solutions. Types of chemical machining 1. chemical Milling By selectively attacking different areas of work piece with chemical reagents shallow cavities can be produced on plates, sheets, forging and extrusion. 2. chemical blanking It is similar to blanking in sheet metals except material is removed by chemical dissolution rather than by shearing. Used in bur free etching of printed circuit boards, decorative panels etc.

CHEMICAL MACHINING

3. Photochemical blanking This process is effective in blanking fragile work pieces and materials. Material is removed using photographic techniques. Applications are electric motor lamination, flat springs, masks for color television, printed circuit cards etc.

ELECTROCHEMICAL MACHINING

Electrochemical Machining
Reverse of electroplating An electrolyte acts as a current carrier and high electrolyte movement in the tool-work-piece gap washes metal ions away from the work piece (anode) before they have a chance to plate on to the tool (cathode). Tool generally made of bronze, copper, brass or stainless steel. Electrolyte salt solutions like sodium chloride or sodium nitrate mixed in water. Power DC supply of 5-25 V.

Advantages of ECM
Process leaves a burr free surface. Does not cause any thermal damage to the parts. Lack of tool force prevents distortion of parts. Capable of machining complex parts and hard materials

ECM systems are now available as Numerically Controlled machining centers with capability for high production, high flexibility and high tolerances.

ELECTROCHEMICAL GRINDING

Electrochemical Grinding (ECG)

Combines electrochemical machining with conventional grinding. The equipment used is similar to conventional grinder except that the wheel is a rotating cathode with abrasive particles. The wheel is metal bonded with diamond or Al oxide abrasives. Abrasives serve as insulator between wheel and work piece. A flow of electrolyte (sodium nitrate) is provided for electrochemical machining. Suitable in grinding very hard materials where wheel wear can be very high in traditional grinding.

ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE MACHINING

Electrical discharge machining (EDM)

Based on erosion of metals by spark discharges. EDM system consist of a tool (electrode) and work piece, connected to a dc power supply and placed in a dielectric fluid. when potential difference between tool and work piece is high, a transient spark discharges through the fluid, removing a small amount of metal from the work piece surface. This process is repeated with capacitor discharge rates of 50-500 kHz.

 dielectric fluid mineral oils, kerosene, distilled and deionized water etc. role of the dielectric fluid 1. acts as a insulator until the potential is sufficiently high. 2. acts as a flushing medium and carries away the debris. 3. also acts as a cooling medium. Electrodes usually made of graphite. EDM can be used for die cavities, small diameter deep holes,turbine blades and various intricate shapes.

WIRE EDM

Wire EDM
This process is similar to contour cutting with a band saw. a slow moving wire travels along a prescribed path, cutting the work piece with discharge sparks. wire should have sufficient tensile strength and fracture toughness. wire is made of brass, copper or tungsten. (about 0.25mm in diameter).

LASER BEAM MACHINING

Laser beam machining (LBM)

In LBM laser is focused and the work piece which melts and evaporates portions of the work piece. Low reflectivity and thermal conductivity of the work piece surface, and low specific heat and latent heat of melting and evaporation increases process efficiency. application - holes with depth-to-diameter ratios of 50 to 1 can be drilled. e.g. bleeder holes for fuel-pump covers, lubrication holes in transmission hubs.

ELCTRON BEAM MACHINING

Electron beam machining (EBM)

similar to LBM except laser beam is replaced by high velocity electrons. when electron beam strikes the work piece surface, heat is produced and metal is vaporized. surface finish achieved is better than LBM. Used for very accurate cutting of a wide variety of metals.

WATER JET MACHINING

Water jet machining (WJT)

Water jet acts like a saw and cuts a narrow groove in the material. Pressure level of the jet is about 400MPa. Advantages - no heat produced - cut can be started anywhere without the need for predrilled holes - burr produced is minimum - environmentally safe and friendly manufacturing. Application used for cutting composites, plastics, fabrics, rubber, wood products etc. Also used in food processing industry.

ABRASIVE JET MACHINING

Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)

In AJM a high velocity jet of dry air, nitrogen or CO2 containing abrasive particles is aimed at the work piece. The impact of the particles produce sufficient force to cut small hole or slots, deburring, trimming and removing oxides and other surface films.

ULTRASONIC MACHINING

ULTRASONIC MACHINING (UM)

In UM the tip of the tool vibrates at low amplitude and at high frequency. This vibration transmits a high velocity to fine abrasive grains between tool and the surface of the work piece. material removed by erosion with abrasive particles. The abrasive grains are usually boron carbides. This technique is used to cut hard and brittle materials like ceramics, carbides, glass, precious stones and hardened steel.