Producing a Sound Wave

Sound is defined as any vibrating

disturbance in an elastic medium capable of
producing an auditory sensation
Sound waves are longitudinal waves
traveling through a medium
The particles of the medium vibrates and
communicates the energy of vibration to the
surrounding medium, usually the air, where
the wave travels and is detected as sound
A tuning fork can be used as an example of
producing a sound wave
Using a Tuning Fork
As the tuning fork continues to vibrate, a
succession of compressions and rarefactions
spread out from the fork
A sinusoidal curve can be used to represent
the longitudinal wave
Crests correspond to compressions and troughs to
rarefactions
Categories of Sound Waves
Audible waves
Lay within the normal range of hearing of the
human ear (Normally between 20 Hz to 20,000
Hz)
Infrasonic waves
Frequencies are below the audible range
Earthquakes are an example
Ultrasonic waves
Frequencies are above the audible range
Dog whistles are an example
Human Hearing
Pitch
highness or lowness of a sound
depends on frequency of sound wave

Quality ( Timbre)
depends on the mode of vibration
Human Hearing
Intensity
volume of sound
depends on energy (amplitude) of sound wave
measured in decibels (dB)




The greater the intensity of sound the farther the sound
will travel and the louder the sound will appear.
Music vs. Noise `
Music
specific pitches and
sound quality
regular pattern
Noise
no definite pitch
no set pattern
Various Intensities of Sound
Threshold of hearing
Faintest sound most humans can hear
About 1 x 10
-12
W/m
2

Threshold of pain
Loudest sound most humans can tolerate
About 1 W/m
2

Intensity of Sound Waves
The average intensity of a wave is the rate at
which the energy flows through a unit area, A,
oriented perpendicular to the direction of travel of
the wave



The rate of energy transfer is the power
Units are W/m
2

1 E
I
A t A
A
= =
A
Intensity Level of Sound Waves
The sensation of loudness is logarithmic in the
human hear
The most common approach to sound intensity
measurement is to use the decibel scale
Decibels measure the ratio of a given intensity I to
the threshold of hearing intensity, so that this
threshold takes the value 0 decibels (0 dB).




I
o
is the threshold of hearing ,
2
16
2
12
10 10
cm
watts
m
watts
I
o

= =
( ) decibels in
I
I
dB I
o
(

=
10
log 10
1 dB = 1/10 bel
.
( ) dB x
m W x
m W x
dB in level 8 . 44 10 3 log 10
/ 10 1
/ 10 3
log 10
4
2 12
2 8
= =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

Solution:
Intensity

A sound has an intensity of
Ex:
2 8
/ 10 3 m W x

What is the sound level in dB?
Intensity of a Point Source
Since the intensity varies as 1/r
2
, this is an
inverse square relationship
The average power is the same through
any spherical surface centered on the
source
To compare intensities at two locations,
the inverse square relationship can be
used

2
1 2
2
2 1
I r
I r
=
lists of intensity levels of various sounds
Sound travels through different media.
We hear sound which usually travels through
air. Sound travels through other media as well,
such as water and various solids.
Sound travels different speeds in different
media. Sound typically travels faster in a solid
that a liquid and faster in a liquid than a gas.
The denser the medium, the faster sound will travel.
The higher the temperature, the faster the particles of the
medium will move and the faster the particles will carry the
sound.
NOTE:
Speed of Sound, General

The speed of sound is higher in solids than
in gases
The molecules in a solid interact more strongly

The speed is slower in liquids than in solids
Liquids are more compressible
property inertial
property elastic
v =
Speed of Sound in a Liquid
In a liquid, the speed depends on the
liquids compressibility and inertia




B is the Bulk Modulus of the liquid
is the mass density of the liquid

B
v

=
Speed of Sound in a Solid Rod
The speed depends on the rods compressibility
and inertial properties




Y is the Youngs Modulus of the material
is the mass density of the material

=
Y
v
Speed of Sound in Air

P
= V
M
T 9
=

mass density
P Pressure on the gas
= 1 atm = 1.013 x 10
6
dynes /cm
2
R 8.314 J/mol. K
T absolute temperature
M molar mass of the gas
= 28.8x10
-3
kg/mol for air
= c
p /
c
v

= 1.4 (diatomic gas)
= 1.67 (monoatomic gas)

Where:
Speed of Sound in Air at a
Temperature, t
t s m V
t s cm V
o
o
6 . 0 / 332
60 / 200 , 33
+ =
+ =
Resonance
Forced Vibration
when one vibrating object
forces another object to
vibrate at the same frequency
results in a louder sound
because a greater surface area
is vibrating
used in guitars, pianos, etc.

object is induced to vibrate at
its natural frequency
Beats
Beats are alternations in loudness, due to interference
Waves have slightly different frequencies and the time
between constructive and destructive interference
alternates
The beat frequency equals the difference in frequency
between the two sources:
2 1

b
=
Beat Frequency
variations in sound
intensity produced
by 2 slightly different
frequencies
both constructive
and destructive
interference occur
Standing Waves in Air Columns
If one end of the air column is closed, a node
must exist at this end since the movement of
the air is restricted
If the end is open, the elements of the air
have complete freedom of movement and an
antinode exists
Resonance in an Air Column
Closed at One End
The closed end must be a node
The open end is an antinode



There are no even multiples of the
fundamental harmonic

1
1, 3, 5,
4
n
v
f n n n
L
= = =
Tube Closed at One End
(Closed Tube)
Resonance in Air Column Open
at Both Ends
In a pipe open at both ends, the natural
frequency of vibration forms a series whose
harmonics are equal to integral multiples of
the fundamental frequency

1
1, 2, 3,
2
n
v
n n n
L
= = =
Tube Open at Both Ends
(Open Tube)
Doppler Effect
A Doppler effect is experienced whenever there is relative
motion between a source of waves and an observer.
Ex:
When the source and the observer are moving toward
each other, the observer hears a higher frequency
When the source and the observer are moving away from
each other, the observer hears a lower frequency
Assumptions:
The air is stationary
All speed measurements are made relative
to the stationary medium
Doppler Effect
As the source moves
toward the observer
(A), the wavelength
appears shorter and
the frequency
increases
As the source moves
away from the
observer (B), the
wavelength appears
longer and the
frequency appears to
be lower
Doppler Effect, General
Equation
Both the source and the observer could be moving



Stationary source of sound, v
s
=0
Stationary observer, v
o
= 0
Moving source of sound, v
s
= - if (toward the observer)
= + if (away from the observer)

Example
1. An ambulance travels down a highway at a
speed of 33.5 m/s, its siren emitting sound at a
frequency of 400 Hz. What frequency is heard by
a passenger in a car travelling at 24.6 m/s in the
opposite direction as the ambulance:
a) approach each other
b) pass and move away from each other?
(Take the speed of sound in air to be 345 m/s)
2. A man standing in front of a concrete wall fired a
gun and received an echo 5 seconds later upon
firing. If the air temperature is 30
o
C, how far is
the man from the wall?

3. A metal rod 100 cm long is clamped from one
end and rubbed with a piece of rosined cloth to
produce sound. The length of powder segment
heaps inside the tube is 8 cm. If the air
temperature is 20
o
C, find a) frequency of sound
emitted by the rod & b) velocity of sound in the
rod

4. A closed pipe at its third harmonic and an open
pipe at its second harmonic are vibrating at the
same place and produce 4 beats (vps) with the
open pipe emitting the louder sound. If the
length of the closed pipe is 80 cm and air
temperature is 30
o
C. Find the length of the
open pipe.
5. What is the shortest length of a column of air
closed at one end so that a sound of 420 Hz can
cause it to vibrate? What would be the next
shortest length? Assume the speed of sound to
be 335 m/s.


6.A railroad is struck by a hammer and an observer
hears two sounds, one from air and one from the
rail with the time interval of 4 seconds and air
temperature of 25

C. If the Y
rail
= 20 X
10
11
dynes/cm
2
and
rail
= 7.8 g/cm
3
, how far is
the source from the observer?
7. An object is dropped into a deep well which has a
layer of water in its bottom. If the well is 60 m
deep with an air temperature of 20

C, how long
after the object is dropped will the splash be
heard?

8.A police siren emits a sinusoidal wave with
frequency f
s
= 300 Hz. The air temperature is
20

C. a) Find the wavelength of the waves if the

siren is at rest in the air. b) If the siren is moving
at 30 m/s, find the wavelengths of the waves
ahead and behind the source.
9. A train travelling at 20 m/s along a straight track
passes an observer who is moving in the same
direction as the train at 4 m/s. When the train is
approaching the observers hears a note of 400
Hz. If the air temperature is 0

C, what is the
frequency of sound heard by the observer as the
train passed?