PERI ASAMY VI JAY

POSTDOCTORAL RESEARCHER


CENTRE FOR PROCESS SYSTEMS COMPUTATI ONS
CURTI N UNI VERSI TY
WESTERN AUSTRALI A
Fuel Cells: Overview of research
at Curtin
The presentation will cover...
Solid Oxide Fuel cell (SOFC) modelling (including 0-
D, quasi 3-D, 3D)
SOFC design (flow field and interconnect)
Control of the SOFC
The Chemistry behind SOFC (Chemical Kinetics)
Proposed experimental work
Future directions

Basic construction and working of the SOFC
Schematic and working of an SOFC
2
2
4 2 e

O + O
2
2 2
2 2 2 4 H H e

+ O O+
Zero dimensional (CSTR) model of the SOFC
Aims
Represent all essential dynamics and interactions
Computationally simple
Assumptions
The fuel is assumed to be pure hydrogen
The Oxidant is air (79% nitrogen and 21% oxygen by volume)
All the gases are ideal
All physical variables are uniform over the cell resulting in a
lumped model
There is sufficient turbulence within the anode and the
cathode for perfect mixing to occur (CSTR)




Zero dimensional (CSTR) model contd...
The mass balance equations
2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2
,
out out
O C O C O ext O O in out r in
O O O C C in
C O N e
dn K n RT K n p i
n n n n x
dt V n n n F
v
= = +
+
2 2 2 2
2 2
2 2
,
out out
N C N C N ext N in out in
N N C C in
C O N
dn K n RT K n p
n n n x
dt V n n
= = +
+
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2
out out
H A H A H ext H in out r in
H H H H
A H W e
dn K n RT K n p i
n n n n
dt V n n n F
v
= = +
+
2 2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2
out out
H O A H O A H O ext H O in out r
H O H O H O
A H H O e
dn K n RT K n p i
n n n
dt V n n n F
v
= + = + +
+
Zero dimensional (CSTR) model contd...
Energy balance
2 2 2 2
2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2
2
, ,
, , , , , ,
2 2
, , ,

out out
C O p O C ext O p O
O N in in in
s p s C C in p O in C C in p N in H p H in
C O N
out out out out
C N p N C ext N p N A H p H A
C O N A
K n RT c K p n Tc
dT
m c n x c T n x c T n c T
dt V n n
K n RT c K p n Tc K n RT c K p
V n n V
= + + +
+
+ +
+
( )
2 2
2 2
2 2 2 2 2
2 2
,
2
, ,

ext H p H
H H O
r
out out
A H O p H O A ext H O p H O H
o
A H H O e
n Tc
n n
K n RT c K p n Tc h i
Vi
V n n n F
v
+
A
+ +
+
Zero dimensional (CSTR) model
contd...Electrochemistry
The relation between the mole flow rates of the
reaction and current is


The cell voltage is given by

2 2 2
2 2 2
r r r
e H O e H e O
H O H O
n Fn n Fn n Fn
i
v v v
= = =
o act conc ohmic
V V q q q =
Quasi 3D TSR models of planar and tubular
geometry SOFCs
Aims
To develop a computationally non taxing TSR models of planar and
tubular geometry SOFCs which will be an alternate for the more
complex CFD models
Using the model to investigate the effect of flow patterns on the spatial
distributions of important cell variables
Assumptions
Each fuel and air compartment is treated as a CSTR (Continuous Stirred
Tank Reactor)
Fuel cell operates with hydrogen/air under the potentiostatic operating
mode and constant total pressure
Electrochemical reactions occur at the electrode-electrolyte interfaces
Ohmic drops in current collectors and electric connections are negligible
Ideal gas law applies
Planar SOFC geometry
Source: http://www.iwe.kit.edu/english/mitarbeiter_sofc.php
Tubular SOFC geometry
Source: http://www.aki.che.tohoku.ac.jp/~koyama/html/research/SOFC.html

Quasi 3D TSR model of SOFC contd...
The basic building block The CSTR model
The component balance equations for fuel and air gas channels






Similar component balances are written for the catalyst
(diffusion) layers

) (
2 2 2 2 2
2
H
cat
H
ij
H
eff
f
mol
f
out
H f
in
H
in
H
f
gas
f
mol
y y S k F y F y
dt
dy
V =
) (
2 2 2 2 2
2
O H
cat
O H
ij
O H
eff
f
mol
f
out
O H f
in
O H
in
O H
f
gas
f
mol
y y S k F y F y
dt
dy
V =
) (
2 2 2 2 2
2
O
cat
O
ij
O
eff
a
mol
a
out
O a
in
O
in
O
a
gas
a
mol
y y S k F y F y
dt
dy
V =

Quasi 3D TSR model of SOFC contd...
The energy balances for the fuel and air gas channels
and the membrane electrode assembly (MEA) are
f f
out
f
out
f
in
f
in
f
f
p
f
mol
f
gas
q h F h F
dt
dT
C V + A A = ) (
a a
out
a
out
a
in
a
in
a
a
p
a
mol
a
gas
q h F h F
dt
dT
C V + A A = ) (
PEN
PEN
PEN
p
PEN
q
dt
dT
C V =
Quasi 3D TSR model of SOFC contd...
The electrode-electrolyte interface is analogous to a
capacitor and the charge balance equations for the
anode and cathode/electrolyte interfaces are
) (
A
cell
A
A
i i
dt
d
C =
q
) (
C
cell
C
C
i i
dt
d
C =
q
Quasi 3D TSR model of SOFC contd...
The flow patterns of the TSR model investigated
The co-current flow pattern
The counter-current flow pattern
The cross-current flow pattern


Quasi 3D TSR model of SOFC contd...
Schematic of a co-flow pattern TSR model of the
planar SOFC
Quasi 3D TSR model of SOFC contd...
Schematic of a counter-flow pattern TSR model of
the planar SOFC
Quasi 3D TSR model of SOFC contd...
Schematic of a cross-flow pattern TSR model of the
planar SOFC
Quasi 3D TSR model of SOFC contd...
Schematic of a TSR model of the tubular SOFC
Comparison of simulated and experimental V-I data
at different fuel gas flows
Parameter
Cross-Flow 1148 1223 1177 1134 1178 1688 57 12.2
Co-Flow 1150 1216 1174 1237 1177 1708 58.5 12.1
Counter-
Flow
1136 1235 1163 1094 1168 1741 52.5 12.3
Comparison of planar SOFC performance for
different flow patterns
Air
avg
T
Air
Out
T
Fuel
avg
T
Fuel
Out
T
PEN
avg
T
A
avg
i % FU % AU
Histograms with steady state simulation results predicted by TSR
model for planar SOFC with co-flow patterns of fuel and air
Histograms with steady state simulation results predicted by TSR model
for planar SOFC with counter-flow patterns of fuel and air
Histograms with steady state simulation results predicted by TSR
model for planar SOFC with cross- flow of fuel and air
Similar results from the TSR model of the tubular geometry SOFC
TSR model of the tubular geometry SOFC results continued
Conclusions obtained from the TSR model
The TSR model is comprehensive and accounts for the
following effects
charge balances at the electrodes and electrolyte
mass balances to the gas channels and diffusion layers
energy balances for the fuel and air channels and also for the PEN
structures
The co flow case is the most favorable for planar SOFC with
improved performance
It is possible to enhance the fuel cell performance by
decreasing the misdistribution of fields
The results demonstrate a strong coupling between the
temperature, concentration, activation over-potential and
current density distributions
The model has very less computational time and hence
suitable for designing model based controllers

CFD based 3D model of planar SOFC
Model equations for anode and cathode channels


Governing equations

Mathematical expression

Continuity equation

Momentum equation

Species conservation

Energy equation

( )
( ) 0 v
t

c
+V =
c
( )
( ) ( )
v
uu P S
t

c
+V = V +V
c
( )
( )
k
k k
Y
vY N
t

c
+V = V
c
( )
( ) (( )) 0
j j
j
h
h N vh T
t

c
+V +V V =
c

CFD based 3D model of planar SOFC contd...
Governing equations

Mathematical expression

Continuity equation

Momentum equation

Species conservation

Energy equation

Model equations for anode and cathode catalyst layers


( )
( ) 0 v
t
c
c
c
+V =
c
2
( )
( ) ( )
p
v
uu P S v
t K
c c
c c c
c
+V = V +V +
c
( )
( )
k
k k k
Y
vY N r
t
c
c
c
+V = V +
c
((1 ) )
( ) ( ) ( )
solid solid
eff j j T
j
h h
vh T h N r
t
c c
c
c +
+V = V V V +
c

CFD based 3D model of planar SOFC contd...
Variable Catalyst layer/electrolyte interface
Anode over-potential
Cathode over-potential
H
2
species
H
2
O species
Temperature
Anode H
2
reaction rate
Cathode reaction rate
Boundary conditions for catalyst/electrolyte interface


2
( )
H
A
dl s A e
C i i i
t
q c
= V +
c
( )
C
dl s C e
C i i i
t
q c
= V
c
2 2
2 2
2
H H
H H
A
eff
Y i
D M
n F

c
=
c
2 2
2 2
2
H O H
H O H O
A
eff
Y i
D M
n F

c
=
c
2 2
( )
2
H H
eff A A
T S
T
i
n F
q
A
c
= +
c
2 2
2 2
2 2
0, , ,
( ) ( )
[exp( ) exp( )]
H H A A
A A eq C A eq H H
A A H s H O s
F F
i i y y
RT RT
o q q o q q
=
2 2
2
0.25
0,
( ) ( )
[exp( ) exp( )]
O O C C
A C eq C C eq
C C O
F F
i i y
RT RT
o q q o q q
=

Details of the simulation
3D mesh created in GAMBIT pre-processing
software
The meshed volume contains 1,000,000 cells with
variable sizes in the anode channel and catalyst layer
The model is implemented in commercial CFD code
FLUENT
The source terms and the sub models are defined
through user defined functions
Velocity inlet and the pressure inlet boundary
conditions are used in the calculation

Conventional anode flow field designs
a) Parallel flow field
design (N1)
b) Serpentine flow field
design (N2)
c) Zigzag flow field design
(N3)
New flow field design implemented in the model
Intensifies mass transfer
process by creating a
hydrodynamic disturbance
to the flow
Improves reforming
reaction with high velocity
and reactant
concentrations

Fields Maldistribution characterisation
Quantitative characterisation of fields distribution by means of defining
a coefficient of variation, which for velocity, temperature and current
density are defined respectively as

0.5
2
1
1
N
U
i
V i
i
t
u u
C A
A u
=
| |

| |
=
|
|
|
\ .
\ .

0.5
2
1
1
N
T
i
V i
i
t
T T
C A
A T
=
| |
| |
| =
|
|
\ .
\ .

0.5
2
1
1
N
I
i
V i
i
t
I I
C A
A I
=
| |
| |
| =
|
|
\ .
\ .

Comparison of the conventional parallel and the new

flow field design for the SOFC
Parameter Design N1 Design New
Velocity variation coefficient 0.97 0.93
Temperature variation coefficient 0.005 0.001
Current density variation coefficient 0.97 0.42
Pressure drop (Pa) 79 104
Mean velocity (m s
-1
) 0.55 0.53
Mean temperature (K) 1001 999
Mean current density (A m2) 7022 7429
Conclusions from the 3D CFD model simulation
The improved CFD based non isothermal model of
the planar SOFC with internal reforming includes
the new boundary conditions for the charge balance
with the electrochemical equations
Simulation results indicate the presence of back
mixing in the inlet manifold in conventional flow
field design
The improved flow field design results in the
improved performance of the chemical and the
electrochemical processes

Cell and stack design for reducing thermal
gradients in the planar SOFC
Problem statement
Reduce the thermal gradients in the planar SOFC which will
lead to
Lesser thermal stresses
Improved cell life
Prevent cell degradation and failure
Previous cell designs to counter these problems
Honeycomb design
Flat tube design
Integrated planar SOFC

Drawback: Designs are complicated and require special fabrication methods
Newly proposed planar SOFC design
Features
Incorporates a secondary air stream in the counter direction to
the cathodic air stream
Allows for mass transfer between the two air streams through
orifices

Possible scheme for realising the inlet and outlet
manifolds for the proposed design
Variables that can be dynamically adjusted to improve thermal
distribution in the proposed design
Inlet air flow rate in the primary air channel
Inlet air temperature in the primary air channel
Inlet air flow rate in the secondary air channel
Inlet air temperature in the secondary air channel

Some results comparing the regular design with
the newly proposed one
72
74
76
78
80
82
84
86
88
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9
F
u
e
l

U
t
i
l
i
z
a
t
i
o
n

(
%
)

M
a
x
i
m
u
m

t
e
m
p
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

d
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
c
e

(
K
)

Cell Voltage (V)
900
950
1000
1050
1100
1150
1200
1250
1300
1350
1400
900
950
1000
1050
1100
1150
1200
1250
1300
1350
1400
0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9
A
i
r

s
t
r
e
a
m

i
n
l
e
t

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
K
)

A
v
e
r
a
g
e

s
o
l
i
d

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
K
)

Cell Voltage (V)
Results from the optimisation with the goal of minimising the maximum temperature difference across the cell for the SOFC with
normal design
Manipulated variables: Air stream inlet temperature and flow rate
Some results contd...
0
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.01
0.012
0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9
A
i
r

s
t
r
e
a
m

i
n
l
e
t

f
l
o
w

(
m
o
l
/
s
)

Cell Voltage (V)
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
S
o
l
i
d

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
K
)

Tanks in the flow direction (-)
0.65 V
0.7 V
0.75 V
0.8 V
0.85 V
0.9 V
Results from the optimisation with the goal of minimising the maximum temperature difference across the cell for the SOFC with
normal design
Manipulated variables: Air stream inlet temperature and flow rate
Some results contd...
0
4000
8000
12000
16000
20000
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

d
e
n
s
i
t
y

(
A
/
m
2
)

Tanks in the flow direction (-)
0.65 V
0.7 V
0.75 V
0.8 V
0.85 V
0.9 V
Results from the optimisation with the goal of minimising the maximum temperature difference across the cell for the SOFC with
normal design
Manipulated variables: Air stream inlet temperature and flow rate
Some results contd...
72
76
80
84
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9
F
u
e
l

U
t
i
l
i
z
a
t
i
o
n

(
%
)

M
a
x
i
m
u
m

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

d
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
c
e

(
K
)

Cell Voltage (V)
1000
1010
1020
1030
1040
1050
1060
1000
1010
1020
1030
1040
1050
0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9
S
e
c
o
n
d
a
r
y

a
i
r

s
t
r
e
a
m

i
n
l
e
t

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
K
)


A
v
e
r
a
g
e

s
o
l
i
d

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
K
)

Cell Voltage (V)
Results from the optimisation with the goal of minimising the maximum temperature difference across the cell for the SOFC
with the newly proposed design
Manipulated variables: primary stream air flow rate and the secondary air stream inlet temperature
Some results contd...
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9
P
r
i
m
a
r
y

a
i
r

s
t
r
e
a
m

i
n
l
e
t

f
l
o
w

(
m
o
l
/
s
)

Cell Voltage (V)
1000
1010
1020
1030
1040
1050
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
S
o
l
i
d

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
K
)

Tanks in the flow direction (-)
0.65 V
0.7 V
0.75 V
0.8 V
0.85 V
0.9 V
Results from the optimisation with the goal of minimising the maximum temperature difference across the cell for the SOFC
with the newly proposed design
Manipulated variables: primary stream air flow rate and the secondary air stream inlet temperature
Some results contd...
0
400
800
1200
1600
2000
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

d
e
n
s
i
t
y

(
A
/
m
2
)

Tanks in the flow direction (-)
0.6 V
0.7 V
0.75 V
0.8 V
0.85 V
0.9 V
Results from the optimisation with the goal of minimising the maximum temperature difference across the cell for the SOFC
with the newly proposed design
Manipulated variables: primary stream air flow rate and the secondary air stream inlet temperature
Key conclusions
Using simulations, the primary air channel inlet flow rate
and the secondary air channel inlet temperature are
identified as suitable variables for manipulation so as to
achieve the goal of temperature uniformity, whilst
maintaining a desirable FU and cell operating temperature.
It is concluded from the simulations that the new design
can restrict the temperature difference in the cell to less
than 2 K over the range of operating voltages while
achieving a FU of above 75 %.
Zero-D model for control analysis: Model
linearization
The non-linear model is represented as


The linearized model in terms of the deviation
variables is given by
u w
x A x B u B w A = A + A + A
u w
y C x D u D w A = A + A + A
( )
, , x f x u w = ( )
, , y f x u w =
General block diagram of linearized system
Operating modes of the SOFC
The operating requirements of the SOFC are
Maintaining constant cell temperature
Maintaining constant fuel utilisation (FU)
Maintaining constant cell voltage
Tracking the power requirement
The SOFC operating modes considered are
Constant FU and temperature
Constant voltage and temperature
Constant temperature and power tracking

Operating modes of the SOFC contd...
a OM11
b OM12
c OM13
d OM21
e OM22
f OM23
g OM31
h OM32
i OM33


The frequency dependent interaction measures
used to quantify interaction between loops
The frequency dependent relative gain array (RGA)



The frequency dependent RGA number
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
1
T
j j j e e e

= G G
( )
, sum
RGA number
ij
i j
a =

G I
Frequency dependent RGA for the control configurations
a OM11
b OM12
c OM13
d OM21
e OM22
f OM23
g OM31
h OM32
i OM33


Configurations
with very less
interactions
and hence
suitable for
decentralised
control are
OM11, OM12,
OM21, OM23
and OM31


Closed loop responses of the SOFC in configuration
OM11 around three operating points
Operating point 1
Operating point 2
Operating point 3
Conclusions from the control loop interaction
analysis
Only five out of eighteen control structures are
amenable for decentralised design
This is confirmed from the closed loop simulations
using PID controllers for the loops which are tuned
sequentially.
The results will be useful in the design of plant wide
controllers for the SOFC system.


Modelling and analysis of electrochemical kinetics: Topological analysis
of hydrogen oxidation reaction kinetics at SOFC anode
The electrochemical reaction is the heart of the fuel
cell
Aims
To utilise the network topology to analyse the SOFC
anode reaction mechanism using the reaction route
graph
Exploit the electrical analogy to
Identify the rate limiting steps in the mechanism
Derive analytical rate expression in terms of the known
variables


Reaction Mechanism for Hydrogen Oxidation at Ni/YSZ
Pattern Anode
Symbol Elementary steps
YSZ Surface

Reactions
S
1

S
2

Ni Surface Reactions
S
3

S
4

S
5

S
6

S
7

Charge-Transfer Reactions
S
8

S
9

S
10

S
11

S
12

S
13

Overall Reaction
List of reaction routes

List of all Full Routes:

List of all Empty Routes:
1. S
1
+ S
2
+ S
4
+ S
8
+ S
9

2. S
2
+ S
4
- S
3
+ S
7
+ S
9
+S
13

3. S
2
-S
3
+S
4
+2S
5
-S
6
+S
12

4. S
2
-S
3
+S
4
+2S
5
-S
6
+S
10
+S
11

5. S
2
-S
3
+S
4
+S
5
+S
7
+S
12

6. S
2
-S
3
+S
4
+S
5
+S
7
+S
10
+S
11

7. S
1
+S
2
+S
4
+S
5
+S
8
+S
10
+S
11
-S
13

8. S
1
+S
2
+S
4
+S
5
+S
8
+S
12
-S
13

9. S
2
-S
3
+S
4
+S
6
+2S
7
+S
10
+S
11

10. S
2
-S
3
+S
4
+S
6
+2S
7
+S
12

11. 2S
1
+S
2
+S
3
+S
4
+S
6
+2S
8
+S
10
+S
11
-2S
13

12. 2S
1
+S
2
+S
3
+S
4
+S
6
+2S
8
+S
12
-2S
13

13. S
2
-S
3
+S
4
-S
6
+2S
9
-S
10
-S
11
+2S
13

14. S
2
-S
3
+S
4
-S
6
+2S
9
-S
12
+2S
13

15. S
1
+S
2
+S
4
+S
6
+S
7
+S
8
+S
10
+S
11
-S
13

16. S
1
+S
2
+S
4
+S
6
+S
7
+S
8
+S
12
-S
13

1. S
5
-S
6
-S
7

2. -S
1
-S
3
+S
7
-S
8
+S
13

3. S
10
+S
11
-S
12

4. S
5
-S
9
+S
12
-S
13

5. -S
1
-S
3
+S
5
-S
6
-S
8
+S
13

6. S
5
-S
9
+S
10
+S
11
-S
13

7. S
1
+S
3
-2S
5
+S
6
+S
8
+S
9
-S
10
-S
11

8. S
1
+S
3
-2S
5
+S
6
+S
8
+S
9
-S
12

9. S
1
+S
3
-S
5
-S
7
+S
8
+S
9
-S
10
-S
11

10. S
1
+S
3
-S
5
-S
7
+S
8
+S
9
-S
12

11. S
1
+S
3
-S
6
-2S
7
+S
8
+S
9
-S
10
-S
11

12. S
1
+S
3
-S
6
-2S
7
+S
8
+S
9
-S
12

13. -S
6
-S
7
+S
9
-S
10
-S
11
+S
13

14. -S
6
-S
7
+S
9
-S
12
+S
13

15. -S
1
-S
3
-S
6
-S
8
+S
9
-S
10
-S
11
+2S
13

16. -S
1
-S
3
-S
6
-S
8
+S
9
-S
12
+2S
1

The reaction route graph
S
8
S
3
S
1
S
7
S
13
S
12
S
9
S
5
S
10
S
11
S
8
S
3
S
1
S
7
S
13
S
12
S
9
S
5
S
10
S
11
S
2
S
4
S
2
OR
OR
S
6
S
4
Circuit analogy for the reaction network
AOR
6.62E-08
1.15E-15
2.56E-07
r2
r4
r9 r8
r1
r7
r13
r5
r12
r11
r10
r6
r5
r13
r8
r9
r4
r2
r3
r3
r11
r12
r10
r7
r1
8.31E-05 8.31E-05
8.31E-05
8.31E-05
2.74E-08
3.88E-08
1.89E-07

R1=0.000266528
R2=1.19E-07
R3=0.123347
R4=0.192352
R5=0.685483
R6=1.28E+09
R7=0.036171
R8=13.76703
R9=4429.756
R10=2752225
R11=10730855
R12=9539421
R13=6041.255
N2
N1
N3
N4
N5
N6 N7
N7
N6
N5
N4
N3
N1
N2
TN1
TN1
TN2
TN2
AOR
Current density expression
Comparison of the polarization curves with the
experimental results and other studies
-4
-3.5
-3
-2.5
-2
-1.5
-1
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45
l
o
g

i
(
A
/
c
m
2
)

(Volt)
This Study (QSS) Exparimentle Voglar Full model Eq (20) R0 approach (Eq 30)
Conclusions from the topological analysis
The dominant pathway is identified as the reaction
route FR1
The hydrogen spill over to oxide ion is identified as
the rate limiting step
Exploiting the electrical analogy, an explicit rate
expression in terms of the terminal species was
derived for the first time


The SOFC test station
The SOFC test station that has been set-up at Curtin University in
collaboration with Ceramic Fuel Cells Ltd. (CFCL), Melbourne, will be
used for experimental studies.
Looking ahead
Model order reduction for control purposes
Non-linear observer design to estimate temperature
distribution in the cell
Adopting a multi-scale modeling approach to resolve
the thermal management issues in the SOFC
Approach thermal management in SOFC using
control theory for distributed systems
Conduct experiments for model validation

Thank you for your attention