Basic of Machining

Basic of Machining
PREPARED BY: S.DINESH KUMAR
ASST.PROF./MECH.DEPT
INTRODUCTION TO MACHINING
The machining is the most broad technological process used in machine building industry
Generally, in the field of machine building, the term of Machining means removal of material from a raw material, by cutting small chips, in order to obtain the desired shape and dimensions for final part.
PREPARED BY: S.DINESH KUMAR DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL AND MULTIPOINT CUTTING TOOL.
A single point cutting tool has only one cutting edge. (Ex: Tools used in lathe) A multipoint cutting tool has a number of teeth or cutting edges don its periphery. (Ex: Milling cutter)
SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL NOMENCLATURE:-
SHANK:The shank is the body portion of the tool.
FACE:The face is the top surface of the tool upon which the chips bear as they are removed from the w/p & slide away.
NOSE RADIUS:The nose radius is the dimension of the round are which forms the nose of the tool bit. For rough turning, a small nose-radius usually about 0.4mm (1/64) is used. For finish turning, a radius from 0.4-1.6mm (1/64 to 1/61) is used, depending upon the size of the tool. A turning tool with a nose radius of 0.8mm (1/32) will produce a satisfactory finish for general rough or finish turning.
Tool large a nose radius results in chatter.
CONTD.
BASE:The base of the tool is that portion of the tool which bears against the supporting tool holder.
FLANK:The flank of the tool is the surface adjacent to and just below the cutting edge.
CUTTING EDGE:The cutting edge is that part of the tool bit that does the actual cutting.
POINT:The point of the tool includes that entire portion of the tool which is shaped to produce the tool face & the cutting edge.
ORTHOGONAL CUTTING OBLIQUE CUTTING
PREPARED BY: S.DINESH KUMAR ORTHOGONAL CUTTING OBLIQUE CUTTING Cutting edge goes in a Cutting edge is inclined, at straight line through the an angle (known as material and the edge of the cutting edge inclination) to a tool is set perpendicular to line drawn at right angles to the cutting direction the direction of cutting.
The chip curls and flows straight up the tool and not side ways. The width of the tool is more. Heat developed per unit area due to friction along the tool-w/p interface is considerably more. The chip flows side ways.
It may or may not.
Heat developed area is less.
per
unit
Tool Angles
Rake Angle:
Rake angle is the angle between the top face of the tool and the normal to the work surface at the cutting edge. In general, the larger the rake angle, the smaller the cutting force on the tool
Clearance Angle:
Clearance angle is the angle between the flank or front face of the tool and a tangent to the work surface originating at the cutting edge. All cutting tools must have clearance to allow cutting to take place. Clearance should be kept to a minimum, as excessive clearance angle will not improve cutting efficiency and will merely weaken the tool
PREPARED BY: S.DINESH KUMAR TYPES OF CUTTING TOOL MATERIAL 1. High carbon steels.
2. Alloy steels
3. High speed steels

4. Cemented carbides 5. ceramics 6. Stellite 7. Diamond
8. Abrasives
9. Cubic Boron Nitride 10.Coated carbides.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS:
HARDNESS: The hardness of the tool should be maintained at high temperatures encountered in metal cutting .
TOUGHNESS: The tool should be capable of withstanding the impact forces in the tool due to interrupted cutting.
WEAR RESISTANCE: The tool should have an acceptance life before it is re-sharpened. The tool should not chemically react with the work material. CO EFFICIENT OF FRICTION: The coefficient of friction for tool material must be low, so that the tool wear will be minimum and result in a good surface finish.
PREPARED BY: S.DINESH KUMAR CUTTING FLUIDS
PURPOSE OF CUTTING FLUID :
1.To cool the tool:Cooling the tool is necessary to prevent metallurgical damage and to assist in decreasing friction at the tool-chip interface and at the tool work piece interface. 2.To Cool the w/p:-
The role of the cutting fluid in cooling the w/p is to prevent its excessive
thermal distortion. 3.To wash the chip away from the tool. 4.To improve surface finish and tool life. 5.Reduces force and energy consumptions. 6.To cause chips break up into small part. 7.To protect the finished surface from corrosion.
PROPERTIES OF CUTTING FLUIDS
1. Good lubricating qualities to produce low-co-efficient of friction.
2. High flash point so as to eliminate the hazard of fire. 3. High heat absorption for readily absorbing the heat developed.
4. Harmless to the skin of the operators.

5. Non-corrosive to the work or the m/c. 6. Low priced to minimize production cost. 7. Low viscosity to permit free flow of the liquid. 8. Transparency so that the cutting action of the tool may be observed.
TYPES OF CUTTING FLUIDS
1. Water 2. Soluble Oils 3. Kerosene 4. Mixed oils
MACHINABILITY
The case with which a given material may be worked with a cutting tool is Machinability. Machinability depends on:
Chemical composition of w/p material.

Micro structure Mechanical properties. Physical properties. Cutting conditions.
FACTORS AFFECTING MACHINABILITY

Cutting speed Dimensions of the cut. Tool material Tool form (angles, radii, etc.,)
Cutting fluid
Nature of engagement of tool with the work.
There are many types of machining operation. A synoptically classification is showed below.
Machining types
(Cutting processes types)
Traditional machining
Cutting with Conventional Tools (Single point or multi point cutting tools having a cleary defined geometry) Sloting/ Shaping Turning Milling Drilling Cutting with Non-Conventional Tools (Abrasive tools that have a random geometru of cutting part) Grinding Honning Lapping
Non-Traditional machining
Machining by:
Water jet
Electro/ Chemical erosion
Laser beam
Ultra sonic
Comparing with other technological processes( like
forming, moulding, casting) from the machine building

area, the machining has less set-up costs for small volume production.
The machining is strictly necessary when finished part has to have very tight tolerances of dimensions or when the roughness of surfaces need to be very smooth.
PREPARATION OF CUTTING TOOL
The four sides of the blank are ground to a smooth, shiny finish. The ends are a coarse finish with a preformed angle of about 15 degrees.
We will use a simple four-step procedure to make our cutting tool 1. Grind the end relief
2. Grind the left side relief

3. Grind the top rake
4. Round the tip
Grinding the End Relief Angle
First grind the end of the tool blank. Use the coarse wheel of your bench grinder and hold the tool blank angled downwards from the tip to the rear and with the tip pointing to the left about 10-15 degrees.. The tip of the tool blank should be a little below the center line of the wheel.
Picture of the tool with End Relief Angle after grinding
Grinding the Left Side Relief Angle
The procedure is essentially the same except that we hold the tool with the side at about a 10 degree angle to the grinding wheel.
Grinding the Top Rake
Grind the top surface to form the top rake angle. Be careful during this operation not to grind down the cutting edge or you will end up with a tool whose tip is below the center line of the lathe. If this happens, the tool will leave a little nub at the center of the work piece when you make a facing cut.
Picture of the tool with Top Rake Angle after grinding
After this operation we have a working tool with a very sharp tip. This tool is useful as-is for operations that need a sharp tip to turn down to an interior edge such as a shoulder.
Rounding the Tip
We will round the tip to form a tool that is useful for facing and turning. Hold the tool so the tip touches the wheel and with the tool tilted downward. Rotate the tool against the wheel to round the tip to about a 1/32" radius.
Final touch to the Tool
The finished tool in action making a finishing cut on a facing Operation. As a final step, smooth the cutting tip on a fine diamond hone or oilstone.
PREPARED BY: S.DINESH KUMAR MECHANISM OF CHIP FORMATION
Consider tool to be stationary and the w/p moves to the
right.
The metal is severely compressed in the area in front of the cutting tool. When the stress in the w/p just ahead of the cutting tool reaches a valve exceeding the ultimate strength of the metal, the particles will shear to form a chips element which moves up along the face of the work. The plane along which the element shears is called the shear
plane.
TYPES OF CHIP
1. Continuous Chip 2. Discontinuous Chip 3. Continuous Chip with Built-up Edge
CONTINUOUS CHIP
This leaves the tool as a long ribbon and is common when cutting most ductile materials such as mild steel, copper and Aluminum. It is associated with good tool angles, correct speeds and feeds, and the use of cutting fluid.
DISCONTINUOUS CHIP
The chip leaves the tool as small segments of metal resulted from cutting brittle metals such as cast iron and cast brass with tools having small rake angles. There is nothing wrong with this type of chip in these circumstances.
CONTINUOUS CHIP WITH BUILTUP EDGE
This is a chip to be avoided and is caused by small particles from the work piece becoming welded to the tool face under high pressure and heat. The phenomenon results in a poor finish and damage to the tool. It can be minimized or prevented by using light cuts at higher speeds with an appropriate cutting lubricant.
CHIP BREAKER
A chip breaker is used to break the continuous chip into sections so that the chips cannot tangle around the cutting tool. The simplest form of chip breaker is made by grinding a groove on the tool face a few millimeters behind the cutting edge.
TOOL WEAR
The following two types of wears are generally found to occur in cutting tools: 1. Crater wear
2. Flank wear
CRATER WEAR
This type of wear takes place in a cutting its face, at a small distance from its cutting edge. This type of wear takes place while machining ductile material like steel alloys, in which continuous chip is
produced. The resultant feature of this type of wear is

the formation of a crater or a depression at the tool-chip interface.
Higher feeds and lack of cutting fluids increases the

rate of crater wear.
PREPARED BY: S.DINESH KUMAR FLANK WEAR
This type of wear occurs in the flank below the cutting edge. It occurs due to abrasion btw the tool flank and the w/p excessive heat generated as a result of the same. The magnitude of this wear mainly depends upon the relative hardness's of the w/p tool material at the time of cutting and also the extent of strain hardness of the chip.
PREPARED BY: S.DINESH KUMAR TOOL WEAR
TOOL LIFE
The length of the period for which a tool can be used is called the Tool Life. When the wear reaches certain values the tool is not capable of further cutting unless it is re-sharpened .
Tool life is the most important criterion for assessing the performance of a tool material
FACTORS AFFECTING TOOL LIFE 1. Cutting Speed
2. Feed And Depth Of Cut

3. Tool Geometry 4. Tool Material 5. Work Material 6. Nature Of Cutting
7. Rigidity Of Machine And Work

8. Use Of Cutting Fluids
TAYLORS FORMULAE FOR TOOL LIFE According to Taylor, the relationship between cutting speed and tool life is,
VTn = C
Where
V = Cutting speed (m/min) T = Tool life ( minute) n = an exponent ,whose value largely depends on the material of the tool called tool life index. C= A constant called machining constant.
The chip formation phenomena is so complex. To have a much clear image about the basics of cutting process, mainly about the chip formation, some spectacular results of simulation are shown. The goals of this simulation are to predict: 1. The material flow (how does the material takes the desired shape during the process). 2. The distribution of forces, stresses, temperatures, micro structural changes
Prediction of Temperatures in Orthogonal Cutting
Cutting tool Chip Deformation zone
Part
Machined surface
Prediction of Temperatures in Orthogonal Cutting
Cutting tool Chip Deformation zone
Part
Machined surface
Temperature Distribution of 3-D Orthogonal Cutting Simulation Cutting tool
Chip Deformation zone Part Machined Surface
Effective Stress Distribution of 3-D Oblique Cutting Simulation
Chip
Part
Temperatures Distribution of 3-D Oblique Cutting Simulation
Chip
Part
3-D Simulation of Turning Using a Nose Radius Tool
Temperature Prediction in the Cutting Tool
PREPARED BY: S.DINESH KUMAR 3-D Simulation of Turning Using a Nose Radius ToolTemperature Prediction in the Chip and Part Chip
Part
2-D Orthogonal cutting simulatin tool with round cutting edge
The influence of edge preparation on tool effective stress
2-D Orthogonal cutting simulatin tool with chamfered edge
The influence of edge preparation on cutting temperature
2-D Ortoghonal cutting simulatin prediction of tool wear
3-D Turning with nose radius tool- Temperature distribution
Burr formation

Basic of Machining - ppt2

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PREPARED BY: S.DINESH KUMAR

Tool large a nose radius results in chatter.

It may or may not.

Heat developed area is less.

3. High speed steels

4. Harmless to the skin of the operators.

TYPES OF CUTTING FLUIDS

1. Water 2. Soluble Oils 3. Kerosene 4. Mixed oils

Chemical composition of w/p material.

FACTORS AFFECTING MACHINABILITY

Electro/ Chemical erosion

forming, moulding, casting) from the machine building

2. Grind the left side relief

4. Round the tip

Grinding the End Relief Angle

produced. The resultant feature of this type of wear is

Higher feeds and lack of cutting fluids increases the

2. Feed And Depth Of Cut

7. Rigidity Of Machine And Work

Chip Deformation zone Part Machined Surface

Temperature Prediction in the Cutting Tool

The influence of edge preparation on tool effective stress

The influence of edge preparation on cutting temperature

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