Reproduction the production of a

new generation of individuals ( offspring ) from pre-existing one (parents ). The importance to ensure the continuity or perpetuation of the species. 2 types asexual and sexual.

Rapid method of increasing the

number of new individuals. The new individuals are formed from one parent genetically identical to each other and to parent. 5 major types binary fission, budding, spore formation, vegetative reproduction, rejuvenation.

PMR ALERT
To characterize asexual reproduction. To identify examples of organisms that carry out a certain method of asexual reproduction.

 - seen in bacteria, amoeba and

paramecium. unicellular organism divides into two equal parts ( daughter cells )

 - seen in yeast and hydra The parent produces an outgrowth

or bud which detaches to become a new individual.

 - seen in bacteria, fungi, moss and

ferns. Sporangium spore-bearing structure. Spore generally very small, light and dispersed by wind and water. Each spore can develop into a new individual.

 - seen in many flowering plants. Part of plant root, stem, leaf or

bud detaches and grows into a new plant.

 A slender shoot that arises in the axil

of a leaf and grows horizontally on the surface of the grass. The runner bears roots and becomes independent before the parent plant dies.

 A bulb a short stem and fleshy

leaves containing food ( mainly sugar )surrounded by brown, scaly leaves. New shoots arise from buds in the axils of the fleshy leaves.

 A horizontally growing underground

stem which store food. It produces lateral buds, some of which develop into shoots. When the old rhizome dies, the new shoots become independent plants.

 A short, vertical, underground stem

swollen with food reserved. It is protected by scaly leaves. Buds are located at the at the axils of these leaves.

 A short, vertical, underground stem

swollen with food reserved. It is protected by scaly leaves. Buds are located at the at the axils of these leaves.

 The swollen ends of underground

stems. New shoots sprout out from the auxiliary buds eyes..

Rejuvenation the replacement of

parts of an organisms that are lost due to injury. A form of asexual reproduction if it results in two or more individuals in which there was only one before. Example of animals sponges, flatworms , starfish- capable of rejuvenating complete organisms from parts of their bodies.

Common in plants vegetative

propagation- whole plants can be grown from cuttings and grafts.

Sexual production the production

of offspring by fusion of specialized sex cells or gametes. Male gamete ( spem) fuses with the female gamete ( ovum or egg ) process fertilization form of zygotezygote develops into a new individual.

 2 type of fertilization internal &

external. External fertilization limited to aquatic organisms, sperms and eggs are shed into the water in great numbersonly a small number of eggs are fertilized by sperms- ie. Fish, amphibians and aquatic

 Internal fertilisation the sperms are

deposited in the female reproductive tract and fertilization occurs within the body of the female. The zygote develops internally and live individuals are born. i.e insects, reptiles, birds and mammals.

PMR ALERT
To identify examples of organisms that carry out internal and external

fertilization. To compare and contrast between asexual and sexual reproduction.

1)

The eggs have a better chance of being fertilized by the sperms. Thus , there is less wastage of gamets. 2) The developing young receive nourishment from the female parent before birth.

ASEXUAL REPRODCTION

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

SIMILARITYInvolves the production of a new generation of individuals of the same species.

Number of parents involved ONE

Gametes involved

Genetic make-up of offspring

IDENTICAL WITH PARENT DIFFERENT FROM PARENTS AND THEY SHOW GENETIC VARIATION

NO

USUALLY TWO

YES , TWO TYPES MALE AND FEMALE

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

sEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Offspring PRODUCE LARGE NUMBERS OF OFFSPRING PRODUCES FEWER OFFSPRING

Speed of reproduction RAPID FORM OF REPRODUCTION

LESS RAPID FOR OF REPRODUCTION

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

 Male sexual organs testis and penis. 2 testes lie outside the abdominal

cavity in a special sacs scrotum. The testes are maintained at a temperature about 2 degree Celsius lower than the body temperature favors sperm production. Each testis is connected to the epididymis and sperm duct.

 The 2 sperm ducts lead to the urethra

which runs through the penis to the exterior. The urethra at different times carries either urine or sperms. The penis contains many blood spaces which during copulation, become filled with blood. This erects the penis, allowing it to penetrate the females vagina. The head of the penis, glans covered by foreskin circumcision.

 3 glands open into the sperm ducts

the prostate gland, Cowpers glands and seminal vesicle.

STRUCTURE

FUNCTION

TESTES SCROTUM PENIS EPIDIDYMIS

Produce sperms -Holds the testes outside the body. -Protects the testes - Places sperms in the vagina during sexual intercourse - Stores sperms

STRUCTURE

FUNCTION

SPERM DUCTS URETHRA SEMINAL VESICLE PROSTATE GLAND COWPERs GLAND

- Carry sperms from the testes to the urethra. -Carry sperms and urine out of the body. - Secretes fluid that provides nourishment to the sperms - Secretes fluid that neutralizes the acidity of urine and the female vagina. - Secretes a lubricating fluid that aids sperm movement.

PMR ALERT
To identify the structure of the human male reproductive system To identify the structures of the human female reproductive system

 The male gametes sperms.

Each sperm consists of a head , a

middle piece and a long tail. the role of the sperm is to swim towards to the female gamete ( ovum ) and fuses with it to form a zygote. The zygote will develop into an adult individual.

 Puberty the time when then the

male and female reproductive systems become fully develop and capable of functioning.

Growth of hair on the face, chest, in pubic region and armpits. 2) Voice box ( larynx ) enlarges. The voice breaks and becomes deeper. 3) Body becomes more muscular. 4) Chest becomes broader. 5) Rapid growth long bones to increase height. 6) The penis , scrotum and prostate become larger. 7) Production of sperms by testes. 8) Certain mental and emotional changes e.g. greater interest in female.
1)

 A female has a pair of ovaries attached to

the lower part of the abdomen. Fallopian tubes ( oviducts ) are thin , muscular tube. At the end, the Fallopian tubes open out as funnel-shaped structures close to the ovaries. At the opposites end, they lead into the uterus ( womb ). The pear- shaped uterus has thick , muscular walls.

 The uterus is connected to a

muscular tube called the vagina. The cervix is a ring of muscles at the lower end of the uterus where it joins the vagina. The vagina opens to the outside through the vulva.

STRUCTURE

FUNCTION

OVARY FALLOPIAN TUBE UTERUS CERVIX

- Produces ovum ( egg). -Carries ovum from the ovary to the uterus.

- Place where the embryo develops. -Secretes mucus that enhances sperm movement into the uterus. -Prevents large foreign bodies from entering the uterus. -Place where sperms are deposited. -Birth canal.

VAGINA

The female gamete ovum. 2) The ovum is larger than the sperm and it is spherical shaped. 3) The ovum fuses with the sperm to form a zygote during fertilization. 4) The ovum stores some food in its cytoplasm. The food is used to nourish the embryo which develops from the zygote.
1)

1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6)

7) 8)

Growth of hair in the pubic region and armpits. Commencement of menstruation. Fat deposits on hips and thighs. Growth and development of breasts. Pelvis becomes broader. Fallopian tubes, uterus and vagina enlarge. Production of ova by the ovaries. Certain mental and emotional changes i.e greater interest in males.

ASPECT

MALE GAMETE

FEMALE GAMETE

NOTES

SIZE

Very small Larger than - The human egg is 0.1 mm in the sperm diameter while the sperm has a width of 0.0025 mm at the widest region of the sperm head. Very large numbers Very few - A healthy male produces about 300 million sperms every day. The ovaries each produce one egg on alternate months. - Whip-like movement of the tail propels the sperm towards the ovum.

NUMBER

MOBILITY

Motile

Non motile

21.3 THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE

Menstruation Is the shedding of the uterine lining and blood flowing through the vagina. Involves the breaking down and building up of the uterine wall and blood vessels. Involves the production and release of a mature ovum.
1.

Menstruation Is influenced by sex hormones. Starts when a female reaches puberty. Usually takes 28 days for each cycle.
1.

THE SEQUENCE OF MENSTRUAL CYCLE

Lining of the uterine wall together with blood vessels break down and are discharged through the vagina. b. Lining of the uterine wall starts to build up, becomes thicker and richer in blood vessels. c. Ovulation occurs. Ovulation is the release of one mature ovum ( egg ) from one of the two ovaries into the Fallopian tube.
a.

THE SEQUENCE OF MENSTRUAL CYCLE d. The lining of the uterine wall beom