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Electronic
Communications
Signal
A detectable physical quantity or impulse (as a voltage, or magnetic field strength) by which messages or information can be transmitted.
Two Kinds of Signals: 1. Digital - can take only discrete values 2. Analog - can take values within a continuous range.
Digital Signals
Periodic
amplitude
1 0
time
Non-periodic
amplitude
1 0
time
Periodic 2 1 0 -1 -2 amplitude
Analog Signals
A periodic signal s will have the same value as that of s at time t after a time interval T has elapsed.
Periodic Signals
(equation 1)
The common unit of frequency is repetitions per second or cycles per second or Hertz. 3. Phase - used to indicate a relative position and the unit used is the same as that for angles
time (sec)
1.0
1.5
2.0
Periodic signals y(t) and z(t) with amplitudes of 1, and a phase lag of /2. The function y(t) is said to be ahead by /2 over z(t).
amplitude (volts)
2 1 0
y(t)
z(t)
-1 /2 -2
time (sec)
Sinusoids
Time domain: y(t) = A sin (2 f t + ) where A = amplitude t = time (equation 2)
= phase
f = frequency = 2 /
Sinusoids
Frequency domain: g(t) = sin t + 1/3 sin 3 t + 1/5 sin 5 t where = carrier frequency t = time amplitude (volts)
1.5 1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1 -1.5
(equation 3)
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
time (sec)
Sinusoids
General Formula:
n=1
1 sin (2n - 1) t 2n - 1
(equation 4)
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
time (sec)
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
time (sec)
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
time (sec)
SIGNAL TRANSMISSION
I(t) ENCODER digital or analog data
I(t) MODULATOR digital or analog data
digital data
DECODER
O(t)
analog data
DEMODULATOR
O(t)
Block diagram for digital and analog signal transmission using the co-dec (encoder-decoder) for digital signals and the mo-dem (modulator-demodulator) for analog signals.
Definitions
Data rate - the amount of data in bits per second that
is transmitted
Modulation rate - the rate at which signal level is changed, expressed in units of baud.
5) Manchester 0 = transition from high to low at the center of an interval 1 = transition from low to high at the center of an interva 6) Differential Manchester 0 = transition at the beginning of an interval 1 = no transition at the beginning of an interval There is always a transition at the center of an interval
Pseudoternary
Manchester Differential Manchester
FSK
PSK
binary 1 binary 0
where
where A = amplitude x = digital data input fc = carrier frequency f1 = fc + offset f2 = fc - offset c = carrier phase
If the reference of a phase shift is with respect to the previous transmitted bit, it is termed as differential PSK.
Phase Shift
450 1350 2250 3150
Digital Data
11 10 00 01
4-PSK Modulator
sin(ct + 1350) sin(ct + 450) 10 11
00 sin(ct + 2250)
01
sin(ct + 3150)
Constellation Diagram
Phasor Diagram
4-PSK Modulator
1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0
+1350
-450
+450
-1350
Binary input
000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111
Amplitude
0.765V 1.848V 0.765V 1.848V 0.765V 1.848V 0.765V 1.848V
Phase
-1350 -1350 -450 -450 +1350 +1350 +450 +450
8-QAM Modulator
cos ct 101 100 -sin ct 000 001 -cos ct 111 (1.848V) 101 111 100
110 (0.765V)
sin ct 010 011
110
000 001
010 011
Phasor Diagram
Constellation Diagram
PCM Modulation
111 +3V 110 +2V 101 +1V 100/000 0V 001 -1V 010 -2V 011 -3V
Analog input data Sample pulse Quantized equivalent 111 010 101 PCM code
t1
111 +3V 110 +2V 101 +1V 100/000 0V 001 -1V 010 -2V 011 -3V
t2
t3
2. Quantizing- is the rounding off of the sampled data to the nearest coded value. The coded values are called steps. The rounding off of values causes distortion, the more steps, the more accurate is the data.
3. Coding- translates the quantized values to binary code equivalent.
Signal Degradation
Causes of signal degradation: Attenuation Capacitance Time delay and delay distortion Noise Attenuation - the measure of the decrease in signal strength at the receiving end due to electrical losses in the length of the conductor and in the dielectric medium. Capacitance - the measure of the electrical energy stored in the dielectric between separate conducting materials like wires.
Signal Degradation
Time Delay - is the time measurement it takes for the signal to reach a distance away from one end. The unit used is usually nanoseconds per foot meter.
Noise - is referred as an unwanted or undesired signal inserted into the transmitted signal. Types of Noise 1. Thermal noise - is due to thermal vibration of charge carriers in a conductor. It is a function of temperature and is equally distributed in the frequency spectrum and cannot be eliminated. 2. Intermodulation noise - arises when the transmission medium is used to carry different signals at different frequencies.
Signal Degradation
3. Crosstalk - comes from another wire. A changing signal or current on a wire produces a magnetic field around it. If there is no conductor carrying the same current but in opposite direction, there will be no second magnetic field to oppose or cancel the original. A changing magnetic field can induce current in another wire, thus resulting in crosstalk. This noise can be minimized if you provide a tight coupling between a pair of wires by twisting them with each other. 4. Impulse noise - a non-continuous, irregular pulse or spike which usually comes in high amplitude but short duration. An example of this is the spike due to an electromagnetic disturbance like lightning or when turning on/off a motor.
Signal Degradation
Transmitted signal
Attenuation
Capacitance
Propagation delay
Impulse noise
Carrier Waves: a continuous, oscillating signal propagate farther. used in telephone, radio and TV (though they transfer different things).
How to encode data into the carrier wave By modulating (modifying) the carrier slightly, Wave go across the medium Demodulated (decoded) at the receiving destination. It is all about representation of information using 1 or 0 in an efficient way over a medium while allowing both parties involved to understand each other.
Frequency Modulation
(FM radio stations)
Varies the frequency of the underlying carrier in proportion to the information being sent . (a) AM (b) FM
Arrows: where the carrier abruptly jumps to a new point in the cycle.
Modem can be used with any media such as radio, telephone line (dial up modem).
CODES
Data communication codes are prescribed bit sequences used for encoding characters and symbols. They are often called character sets, character codes, symbol codes, or character languages.
In essence, there are only 3 types of characters used in data communication codes, namely:
The 3 most common character set used for character encoding 1. Baudot code - sometimes called Telex code. First fixed length character code. It is a 5 bit character code. Used letter shift (11011) and figure shift (11111). Ex. A = 11000, - = 11000 Question? How can the other end know that its A or that Im sending?
ASCII Code - is a 7-bit character. When parity is used, it become 8 bit but the 8th bit represent the parity bit.
Parity bit- a single bit added to each character to force the total number of 1s in the character, including the parity bit to be either an odd number or an even number.
Two types of parity 1. ODD parity 2. EVEN parity Ex1. ASCII-77 code - ODD parity
A = 11000001
Note: rightmost bit is bit 0 and leftmost bit is bit 7 EX2. Det. the value of Po (odd parity) and Pe (even parity) of the ff: ASCII characters: Po 1. 0000000 2. 1101000 3. 1111111 4. R 5. q 1 ? ? ? ? Pe 0 ? ? ? ?
3. EBCDIC code - an 8-bit character code developed by IBM and used extensively in IBM and IBM-compatible equipment.
Ex. What is the EBCDIC code of A? Ans. 11000001 Note: right most bit is bit 7 and leftmost bit is bit 0