Unit 1

CS 1302 Computer Networks
Unit - 1
Data Communications
Text Book
Behrouz .A. Forouzan, Data communication and Networking, Tata McGrawHill, 2004
10/12/2012
Unit-1 : Data Communications
Overview of Data Communications and Networking

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Overview
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Introduction
1.1 Data Communication
Components
Data Representation Direction of Data Flow

Figure 1.1
Five components of data communication
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Figure 1.2
Simplex
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Figure 1.3
Half-duplex
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Figure 1.4
Full-duplex
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1.2 Networks
Distributed Processing Network Criteria Physical Structures Categories of Networks
Figure 1.5
Point-to-point connection
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Figure 1.6
Multipoint connection
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Figure 1.7
Categories of topology
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Figure 1.8
Fully connected mesh topology (for five devices)
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Figure 1.9
Star topology
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Figure 1.10
Bus topology
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Figure 1.11 Ring topology
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Figure 1.12
Categories of networks
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Figure 1.13
LAN
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Figure 1.13
LAN (Continued)
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Figure 1.14
MAN
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Figure 1.15
WAN
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1.3 The Internet
A Brief History The Internet Today
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Figure 1.16
Internet today
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1.4 Protocols and Standards Protocols

Standards Standards Organizations Internet Standards
Network Models
2.1 Layered Tasks
Sender, Receiver, and Carrier Hierarchy Services

Figure 2.1
Sending a letter
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2.2 Internet Model
Peer-to-Peer Processes
Functions of Layers Summary of Layers

Figure 2.2
Internet layers
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Figure 2.3
Peer-to-peer processes
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Figure 2.4
An exchange using the Internet model
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Figure 2.5
Physical layer
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Note: The physical layer is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next.
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Figure 2.6
Data link layer
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Note: The data link layer is responsible for transmitting frames from one node to the next.
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Figure 2.7
Node-to-node delivery
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Example 1
In Figure 2.8 a node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a node with physical address 87. The two nodes are connected by a link. At the data link level this frame contains physical addresses in the header. These are the only addresses needed. The rest of the header contains other information needed at this level. The trailer usually contains extra bits needed for error detection
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Figure 2.8
Example 1
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Figure 2.9
Network layer
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Note: The network layer is responsible for the delivery of packets from the original source to the final destination.
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Figure 2.10
Source-to-destination delivery
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Example 2
In Figure 2.11 we want to send data from a node with network address A and physical address 10, located on one LAN, to a node with a network address P and physical address 95, located on another LAN. Because the two devices are located on different networks, we cannot use physical addresses only; the physical addresses only have local jurisdiction. What we need here are universal addresses that can pass through the LAN boundaries. The network (logical) addresses have this characteristic.
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Figure 2.11 Example 2
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Figure 2.12
Transport layer
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Note: The transport layer is responsible for delivery of a message from one process to another.
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Figure 2.12
Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message
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Example 3
Figure 2.14 shows an example of transport layer communication. Data coming from the upper layers have port addresses j and k (j is the address of the sending process, and k is the address of the receiving process). Since the data size is larger than the network layer can handle, the data are split into two packets, each packet retaining the port addresses (j and k). Then in the network layer, network addresses (A and P) are added to each packet.
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Figure 2.14
Example 3
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Figure 2.15
Application layer
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Note: The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.
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Figure 2.16
Summary of duties
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2.3 OSI Model
A comparison
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Figure 2.17
OSI model
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Digital Transmission
4.1 Line Coding
Some Characteristics
Line Coding Schemes Some Other Schemes

Figure 4.1
Line coding
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Figure 4.2
Signal level versus data level
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Figure 4.3
DC component
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Example 1
A signal has two data levels with a pulse duration of 1 ms. We calculate the pulse rate and bit rate as follows:
Pulse Rate = 1/ 10-3= 1000 pulses/s Bit Rate = Pulse Rate x log2 L = 1000 x log2 2 = 1000 bps
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Example 2
A signal has four data levels with a pulse duration of 1 ms. We calculate the pulse rate and bit rate as follows:
Pulse Rate = = 1000 pulses/s Bit Rate = PulseRate x log2 L = 1000 x log2 4 = 2000 bps
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Figure 4.4
Lack of synchronization
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Example 3
In a digital transmission, the receiver clock is 0.1 percent faster than the sender clock. How many extra bits per second does the receiver receive if the data rate is 1 Kbps? How many if the data rate is 1 Mbps?
Solution
At 1 Kbps: 1000 bits sent 1001 bits received1 extra bps At 1 Mbps: 1,000,000 bits sent 1,001,000 bits received1000 extra bps
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Figure 4.5
Line coding schemes
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Note: Unipolar encoding uses only one voltage level.
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Figure 4.6
Unipolar encoding
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Note: Polar encoding uses two voltage levels (positive and negative).
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Figure 4.7
Types of polar encoding
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Note: In NRZ-L the level of the signal is dependent upon the state of the bit.
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Note: In NRZ-I the signal is inverted if a 1 is encountered.
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Figure 4.8
NRZ-L and NRZ-I encoding
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Figure 4.9
RZ encoding
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Note: A good encoded digital signal must contain a provision for synchronization.
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Figure 4.10
Manchester encoding
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Note: In Manchester encoding, the transition at the middle of the bit is used for both synchronization and bit representation.
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Figure 4.11 Differential Manchester encoding
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Note: In differential Manchester encoding, the transition at the middle of the bit is used only for synchronization. The bit representation is defined by the inversion or noninversion at the beginning of the bit.
Note: In bipolar encoding, we use three levels: positive, zero, and negative.
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Figure 4.12
Bipolar AMI encoding
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Figure 4.13
2B1Q
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Figure 4.14
MLT-3 signal
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4.2 Block Coding
Steps in Transformation Some Common Block Codes
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Figure 4.15
Block coding
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Figure 4.16
Substitution in block coding
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Table 4.1 4B/5B encoding

Data Code Data Code
0000
0001
11110
01001
1000
1001
10010
10011
0010
0011 0100 0101 0110 0111
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10100
10101 01010 01011 01110 01111
1010
1011 1100 1101 1110 1111
10110
10111 11010 11011 11100 11101
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Table 4.1 4B/5B encoding (Continued)

Data Code
Q (Quiet) I (Idle) H (Halt) J (start delimiter) K (start delimiter) T (end delimiter)
00000 11111 00100 11000 10001 01101
S (Set) R (Reset)
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11001 00111
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Figure 4.17
Example of 8B/6T encoding
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4.3 Sampling
Pulse Amplitude Modulation Pulse Code Modulation Sampling Rate: Nyquist Theorem How Many Bits per Sample? Bit Rate
Figure 4.18
PAM
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Note: Pulse amplitude modulation has some applications, but it is not used by itself in data communication. However, it is the first step in another very popular conversion method called pulse code modulation.
Figure 4.19
Quantized PAM signal
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Figure 4.20
Quantizing by using sign and magnitude
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Figure 4.21
PCM
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Figure 4.22
From analog signal to PCM digital code
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Note: According to the Nyquist theorem, the sampling rate must be at least 2 times the highest frequency.
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Figure 4.23
Nyquist theorem
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Example 4
What sampling rate is needed for a signal with a bandwidth of 10,000 Hz (1000 to 11,000 Hz)?
Solution
The sampling rate must be twice the highest frequency in the signal: Sampling rate = 2 x (11,000) = 22,000 samples/s
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Example 5
A signal is sampled. Each sample requires at least 12 levels of precision (+0 to +5 and -0 to -5). How many bits should be sent for each sample?
Solution
We need 4 bits; 1 bit for the sign and 3 bits for the value. A 3-bit value can represent 23 = 8 levels (000 to 111), which is more than what we need. A 2-bit value is not enough since 22 = 4. A 4-bit value is too much because 24 = 16.
Example 6
We want to digitize the human voice. What is the bit rate, assuming 8 bits per sample?
Solution
The human voice normally contains frequencies from 0 to 4000 Hz. Sampling rate = 4000 x 2 = 8000 samples/s Bit rate = sampling rate x number of bits per sample = 8000 x 8 = 64,000 bps = 64 Kbps
Note: Note that we can always change a band-pass signal to a low-pass signal before sampling. In this case, the sampling rate is twice the bandwidth.
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4.4 Transmission Mode
Parallel Transmission Serial Transmission
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Figure 4.24
Data transmission
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Figure 4.25
Parallel transmission
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Figure 4.26
Serial transmission
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Note: In asynchronous transmission, we send 1 start bit (0) at the beginning and 1 or more stop bits (1s) at the end of each byte. There may be a gap between each byte.
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Note: Asynchronous here means asynchronous at the byte level, but the bits are still synchronized; their durations are the same.
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Figure 4.27
Asynchronous transmission
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Note: In synchronous transmission, we send bits one after another without start/stop bits or gaps. It is the responsibility of the receiver to group the bits.
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Figure 4.28
Synchronous transmission
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5.2 Telephone Modems
Modem Standards
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Note: A telephone line has a bandwidth of almost 2400 Hz for data transmission.
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Figure 5.18
Telephone line bandwidth
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Note: Modem stands for modulator/demodulator.
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Figure 5.19
Modulation/demodulation
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Figure 5.20
The V.32 constellation and bandwidth
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Figure 5.21
The V.32bis constellation and bandwidth
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Figure 5.22
Traditional modems
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Figure 5.23
56K modems
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Transmission Media
Figure 7.1
Transmission medium and physical layer
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Figure 7.2
Classes of transmission media
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7.1 Guided Media

Twisted-Pair Cable
Coaxial Cable Fiber-Optic Cable

Figure 7.3
Twisted-pair cable
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Figure 7.4
UTP and STP
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Table 7.1 Categories of unshielded twisted-pair cables

Category Bandwidth Data Rate Digital/Analog Use
1
2
very low
< 2 MHz
< 100 kbps

2 Mbps
Analog
Analog/digital
Telephone
T-1 lines
3
4 5 6 (draft) 7 (draft)
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16 MHz
20 MHz 100 MHz 200 MHz 600 MHz
10 Mbps
20 Mbps 100 Mbps 200 Mbps 600 Mbps
Digital
Digital Digital Digital Digital
LANs
LANs LANs LANs LANs
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Figure 7.5
UTP connector
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Figure 7.6
UTP performance
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Figure 7.7
Coaxial cable
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Table 7.2 Categories of coaxial cables
Category
RG-59 RG-58 RG-11
Impedance
75 W 50 W 50 W
Use
Cable TV Thin Ethernet Thick Ethernet
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Figure 7.8
BNC connectors
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Figure 7.9
Coaxial cable performance
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Figure 7.10
Bending of light ray
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Figure 7.11 Optical fiber
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Figure 7.12
Propagation modes
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Figure 7.13
Modes
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Table 7.3 Fiber types

Type 50/125 62.5/125 100/125 7/125 Core 50 62.5 100 7 Cladding 125 125 125 125 Mode Multimode, graded-index Multimode, graded-index Multimode, graded-index Single-mode
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Figure 7.14
Fiber construction
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Figure 7.15
Fiber-optic cable connectors
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Figure 7.16
Optical fiber performance
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7.2 Unguided Media: Wireless
Radio Waves
Microwaves Infrared
Figure 7.17
Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless communication
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Figure 7.18
Propagation methods
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Table 7.4 Bands

Band VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF Range 330 KHz 30300 KHz 300 KHz3 MHz 330 MHz 30300 MHz 300 MHz3 GHz 330 GHz 30300 GHz Propagation Ground Ground Sky Sky Sky and line-of-sight Line-of-sight Line-of-sight Line-of-sight Application Long-range radio navigation Radio beacons and navigational locators AM radio Citizens band (CB), ship/aircraft communication VHF TV, FM radio UHF TV, cellular phones, paging, satellite Satellite communication Long-range radio navigation
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Figure 7.19
Wireless transmission waves
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Figure 7.20
Omnidirectional antennas
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Note: Radio waves are used for multicast communications, such as radio and television, and paging systems.
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Figure 7.21
Unidirectional antennas
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Note: Microwaves are used for unicast communication such as cellular telephones, satellite networks, and wireless LANs.
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Note: Infrared signals can be used for shortrange communication in a closed area using line-of-sight propagation.
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CS 1302 Computer Networks

Unit-1 : Data Communications

Overview of Data Communications and Networking

Unit-1 : Data Communications

1.1 Data Communication

Data Representation Direction of Data Flow

Five components of data communication

Unit-1 : Data Communications

Unit-1 : Data Communications

Unit-1 : Data Communications

Unit-1 : Data Communications

Unit-1 : Data Communications

Unit-1 : Data Communications

Unit-1 : Data Communications

Fully connected mesh topology (for five devices)

Unit-1 : Data Communications

Unit-1 : Data Communications

Unit-1 : Data Communications

Figure 1.11 Ring topology

Unit-1 : Data Communications

Unit-1 : Data Communications

Unit-1 : Data Communications

Unit-1 : Data Communications

Unit-1 : Data Communications

Unit-1 : Data Communications

1.3 The Internet

A Brief History The Internet Today

Unit-1 : Data Communications

Unit-1 : Data Communications

1.4 Protocols and Standards Protocols

2.1 Layered Tasks

Sender, Receiver, and Carrier Hierarchy Services

Unit-1 : Data Communications

2.2 Internet Model

Functions of Layers Summary of Layers

Unit-1 : Data Communications

Unit-1 : Data Communications

An exchange using the Internet model

Unit-1 : Data Communications

Unit-1 : Data Communications

Unit-1 : Data Communications

Data link layer

Unit-1 : Data Communications

Unit-1 : Data Communications

Unit-1 : Data Communications

Unit-1 : Data Communications

Unit-1 : Data Communications

Unit-1 : Data Communications

Unit-1 : Data Communications

Unit-1 : Data Communications

Unit-1 : Data Communications

Figure 2.11 Example 2

Unit-1 : Data Communications

Unit-1 : Data Communications

Unit-1 : Data Communications

Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

Unit-1 : Data Communications

Unit-1 : Data Communications

Unit-1 : Data Communications

Unit-1 : Data Communications

Unit-1 : Data Communications

Unit-1 : Data Communications

2.3 OSI Model

Unit-1 : Data Communications