Bel 01 Introduction

WELCOME TO BASIC ELECTRONICS COURSE
DEVICES ANALOG CIRCUIT DIGITAL CIRCUIT
S. Kal,
IIT-Kharagpur
Basic Concept of Electronics

ELECTRONICS : A Science & Technology of Electrons the fundamental negatively charged particles.
S. Kal,
IIT-Kharagpur
Electrons are very obedient, magic particles. The valence electrons in a metal are free. They move freely within the metal boundary, but require some little energy ( called work function ) to come out from metal. Work Function a few eV, [1 eV = 1.602 X 10-19 Joule ] ( energy gained by an electron accelerated by 1 V p.d.)
Random motion of electrons in metal by collision with nuclei
Average drift of electrons

S. Kal, IIT-Kharagpur
Current in a metal wire has many effects :

1. Resistance effect heating ( I2 R ), potential drop (IR) 2. Inductance effect magnetic field ( = L I )
3. Electric field or Capacitance effect ( Q = C V )
Electron flow in semiconductors can produce miraculous effectsDiodes, Transistors, LEDs, Lasers, Detectors, Solar cells, Thermistors, SCRs etc., Integrated circuits, Microprocessors
Electron flow in high vacuum Can also do a marvel : Vacuum tubes (triodes, pentodes) Cathode Ray Tube ( CRT ) ( TV picture tube, photomultiplier)
Thermionic Emission From a Hot Cathode
A rapidly oscillating electron emits Radio Waves.

A BRIEF HISTORY OF ELECTRONICS
Evolution of Electronics
1890 1894 Hertz performs the first experiment on generation of electromagnetic waves. Sir J. C. Bose first showed the propagation of radio waves. Marconi also postulated the theory of radio wave propagation at the same time. H. A. Lorentz postulated the existence of discrete charges, called electron.
1895
1897
1897 1904
J. J. Thomson experimentally verified existence of electron.

Braun built the first electron tube. Fleming invented the diode, called valve.
1906
De Forest put a third electrode (called grid) into the Fleming valve and invented triode tube, which he called an audion. The audion was the first amplifier. First application of electronics is Radio and birth of IRE (Institute of Radio Engineers) in USA. Black and white TV introduced. Color TV began. Birth of IEEE took place.
1912 1930 1950 1963
Evolution of Transistors
1947 (Dec) Brattain, Bardeen discovered point contact transistor, Shockley discovered junction transistor. All three of them were honoured by Nobel Prize in Physics in 1956 that was first Nobel prize in Engineering devices.
Evolution of Transistors
1950 1951 1958 First grown junction transistor. Transistor produced commercially (first germanium and then silicon) Kilby (Texas Instruments, USA) gave monolithic idea and he got Nobel prize in 2001 1961 Fairchild & T.I. produced IC commercially.
Evolution of ICs
1951 1960 1966 Discrete transistor Small Scale Integration (SSI) [<100 components per chip ] Medium Scale Integration (MSI) [ > 100 but < 1000 ]
Evolution of ICs
1969 1975 Large Scale Integration (LSI) [ > 1000 but < 10,000] Large Scale Integration (VLSI) [ > 10,000 ]
1980
106 components per chip. Typical VLSI chip size in 1978: 3 x 5 mm2 area, 0.1 mm thick. Total 30,000 components, i.e. 2000 components/mm2.
Ultra large Scale Integration (ULSI), > 10,000 components / mm2. 108 components per chip. Entire computer on single chip (6 mm x 6 mm) area.
1998
Evolution of Computers
1633 1833 1933 Schiokherd in Germany invented mechanical computer. First computing Charles Babbage. system analytical engine made by long
10
Electromechanical calculator. ( IBM, USA, size - 17m and 3 m high )

Evolution of Computers
1946 1948 1954 1959 1965 1970 Electronic calculator by Eckest ( Pensylvania ). (18,000 tubes) General purpose small electronic calculator. First generation computer. ( IBM 650, tube version ) Second generation computer. ( IBM 7090 / 7094 series,transistor version) Third generation computer. ( IBM 360 system, IC version ) Computer with semiconductor memory. vacuum
1978
1980
Entire computer on a single chip 6 mm x 6 mm
area.
Microcomputer a general purpose digital processing and control system.

11
Electronics, as we know it today, to a large extent is a semiconductor-based industry.
Over the last 30 years or so, the semiconductor industry has successfully miniaturised integrated circuit (IC) chips to squeeze huge numbers of transistors on a single thumbnailsize wafer of silicon.
But to allow this we need extremely pure silicon, an exceedingly clean and smooth surface and absence of defects (contaminant, organic residue etc.) It may appear surprising, but the basis of all these high-tech gadgets is just sand (silicon)
12
Microelectronics Historical Perspective

PRESENT ERA BEGINS WITH THE INVENTION OF SOLID STATE ELECTRONICS
Point Contact Transistor invented in 1947 by Bardeen, Brattain, Schockly at Bell Telephone Laboratories
- Nobel prize in 1956
Oxidation demonstrated in 1953 by Brattain and Bardeen at Bell Telephone Laboratories

Courtesy: Lucent Technologies, Bell Labs Innovations 13
S.KAL, IIT- KHARAGPUR
Microelectronics Historical Perspective Integrated Circuit 1958
US Patent # 3,138,743 Filed Feb. 6, 1959

14
Microelectronics Historical Perspective Nobel Prize in 2000

Jack Kilby
ICs in the early 1960s (four BJTs and several resistors)
ICs in the early 1990s (over one million MOS transistors )

15
Why silicon for VLSI ?

Pure silicon has a relatively high electrical
resistivity
By adding ppm level of special impurities

(dopant), resistivity can be lowered by many orders of magnitude
There are two types of mobile carriers

(electron & holes) in Si: Donor dopants will increase the electron concentration; Acceptor dopants will increase hole concentrations
Good dielectrics such as SiO2 and Si3N4 can

easily be formed from silicon.
16
Silicon ICs Status & Trends
17
Silicon ICs Status & Trends

10 um
Modern CMOS Beginning of Submicron CMOS
Moore's Law
Deep UV Litho 90 nm in 2004
1 um 34 Years of Scaling History
100 nm
Every generation Feature size shrinks by 70% Transistor density doubles Wafer cost increases by 20% Chip cost comes down by 40% Generations occur regularly On average every 2.9 years over the past 34 years Recently every 2 years
Presumed Limit to Scaling
10 nm
1 nm 1970
1980
1990
2000
2010
2020
Silicon Microelectronics
Currently > 100 M transistors / chip Silicon wafers (~ 4 12 inches)
Silicon Chip (~ 2 cm sq.)
Projection 2014: ~ 20 B transistors/ chip

19
On Size and Scale !
20
CMOS Device - 2006

Design 0.10 0.13 m Channel length 0.05 m fT 100 GHz tOX = 1.5 2.0 nm Source & drain 30 50 nm deep Shallow trench isolation Poly Si gate Self - align silicide contacts
S.KAL, IIT- KHARAGPUR
21
High Performance Technology Requirement Table

(Data from 2003 ITRS)
Year Lgate EOT Vdd Vth
Parasitic (RSD)
Units nm A V V
Ohm m
2003 45 13 1.2 0.21 180

7.4E-16 2.4E-16 4.0E-07
2006 28 10 1.1 0.21 171

5.7E-16 2.3E-16 6.1E-07
2009 20 8 1.0 0.16 144

5.8E-16 1.9E-16 7.7E-07
2012 14 7 0.9 0.14 116

4.4E-16 1.5E-16 9.9E-07
2015 10 6 0.8 0.12 88

3.5E-16 1.2E-16 2.6E-06
2018 7 5 0.7 0.11 60

2.7E-16 8.0E-17 3.9E-06
Cg Cpara Psatic
tD
(NAND)
F/m F/m
W/m
pS
30.24
18.92
12.06
7.47
4.45
2.81
Equivalent Oxide Thickness (EOT) = Td / ( K/Kox) ; using high-K dielectric of thickness Td and relative dielectric constant K. Kox = 3.9 (SiO2) 22
23
What Is Nanotechnology?
The Working Definition:
Nanotechnology refers to any application of science that deals with elements between 100 nanometers and a tenth of a nanometer in size, in which size is critical to the applications ultimate purpose
A Real World Comparison:

2014 2004
486DX 10 Hydrogen atoms 1 nanometer
24
What Drives The Nanosemiconductor Technology?

The Digital Devices The Relentless Craving For More Functions At Reduced Cost
25
Digital Devices: The State Of The

Industry
Driven By Three Major Disruptive Forces
INNOVATION
CONVERGENCE
SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION
26
First Major Disruptive Force:

Digitization Of Everything
27
Second Major Disruptive Force:

Connectivity Everywhere
28
Third Major Disruptive Force:

New Media
Radio Movie Hall
Home TV
Lap-top & Cell-phone
Teenagers now spend more time on cell phone than on TV

29
Personal Computer: The Emerging Consumers
30
Cell Phones: The Emerging

Consumers
31
The Emerging Consumers

Change In Business Model
Example: Personal Computer
32
The Emerging Consumers

Change In Business Model
Example: Mobile Phone
NEW DELHI, India, August 8, 2005, Times of India
Texas Instruments has announced the availability of its single-chip technology for cell phone makers in emerging markets Our customers can use this technology to make ultralow-cost handsets affordable in largely untapped consumer markets such as India, China, South America, Eastern Europe and other emerging markets Richard Templeton, CEO, TI
TEXAS INSTRUMENTS DELIVERS INDUSTRY'S FIRST INTEGRATED SINGLECHIP SOLUTION FOR MOBILE PHONES
33
In Summary, The Business

Drivers For The Emerging Consumer Products Are
More Functions
Higher Revenue
($/in2 of Si)
Scaling and Integration
Higher Device Yield
Faster Technology Ramp
Accelerated Defect Learning

34
Basic Electronics Transducers Devices, components Circuits
Functional Blocks
Electronic System
35
Transducers
A transducer may be defined as any device that converts energy in one form to other form.
Most of the transducers either convert electrical energy into mechanical displacement and /or convert some non-electrical physical quantity ( such as temperature, light, force, sound etc. ) to an electrical signal.
In an electronic instrumentation system, the functions of transducer are two-fold :

to detect or sense the presence, magnitude and changes in the physical quantity being measured to provide a proportional electrical output
36
Transducer
Classification of Transducers :
Passive transducers they require an external power supply and their output is a measure of some variation in a physical parameter such as pressure, resistance and capacitance etc Self-generating transducers they do not require an external power source. However they provide an electrical output when stimulated by some physical form of energy
37
Listing of different transducers :

1. Mechanical Strain gauge type for measuring force, torque and pressure etc.
2. Thermal
3. Optical
Thermistors, thermocouples
Photoconductor, photodiode, photovoltaic ( solar) cells
4. Acoustical Microphone 5. Chemical 6. Nuclear pH meter Geiger-Muller tube, ionization chamber
7. Biological
Electrocardiograph (ECG) and Electro-encephalograph ( EEG )

38
Classification based on Electrical principle involved:

A better way of classifying transducers is to arrange them according to the basic electrical measuring principle involved in converting the physical quantity (or its variations) into corresponding electrical quantity (or variations).
Such an arrangement is given below :

(a) Variable resistance Type
1. Strain and pressure gauges

2. Thermistors, resistance thermometers 3. Photo conductive cell
4. Chemical conductive meter

5. Contact thickness gauge etc.
39
(b) Variable inductance Type

1. Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) (c) Variable capacitance Type
1. Capacitor microphone
3. Pressure gauge
2. Dielectric gauge
(d) Voltage divider Type
1. Potentiometer position sensor 2. Pressure actuated voltage divider
(f) Voltage generating Type

1. Piezoelectric pick up 3. Photovoltaic (Solar) cell 2. Thermocouple 4. Rotational motion tachometer
S. Kal,
IIT-Kharagpur
40
Electronic circuits together with digital displays have made measuring gadgets much more reliable, accurate and easy to handle.
For example a PH tester is an extremely important equipment for a chemical laboratory.

Advantages of the PH Tester. (a) It is accurate (upto 0.1 PH) and reliable. (b) By pressing a button it is possible to freeze the reading (as in a stop watch) (c) It switches off automatically after a fixed time interval.
(d) The body is made of polymers which are physically and chemically durable.
(e) The electronics used in this gadget is not complex, and yet, even a child can use this device.
41
Functional Blocks using passive components

1. Potential Divider
I = V1 / ( R1 + R2 ) V2 = V1R2 / ( R1 + R2 )
2. R-C Filter R2 is replaced by a capacitance, C, the circuit behaves like a low pass filter
ZC 1 / jC , I V1 /( R1 ZC ), V2 ZCV1 /( R1 ZC ) V2 V1 / jC V1 R1 1 / jC 1 jC R1 high, V2 very sm all sm all, V2 high
42
This is the characteristics of a low pass filter. Assume 1 = 1/CR1,

| V2 / V1 | 1 /
V2/V1 = 1/[1+j/1]
[1 ( / 1 )2 ; 2
At 1 , | V2 / V1 | 1 /
Thus, V2 = 0.707 V1,
1 is called cut-off frequency or 3 dB point.
S. Kal,
IIT-Kharagpur
43
3. C-R Filter R1 is replaced by a capacitance, C, the circuit behaves like a high pass filter
ZC 1 / jC , 1 I V1 /( R2 ZC ), ZC jC V2 R2V1 /( R2 ZC ) V2 V1R2 jC R2 V1 R2 1 / jC 1 jC R1
high, V2 very high ( approaches V1) small, V2 very small ( almost zero)
44
Assume 2 = 1/ CR2, V2/V1 = 1/ [ 1+ 2 / j]

| V2 / V1 | 1 / [1 ( 2 / )2 ; 2
At 2 , | V2 / V1 | 1 /
Thus, V2 = 0.707 V1,
2 is called cut off frequency or 3 dB point.
S. Kal,
IIT-Kharagpur
45
FURNACE TEMPERATURE CONTROL
pH METER AND CONTROL
S. Kal,
IIT-Kharagpur
46
PURELY ELECTRONIC APPLICATIONS
S. Kal,
IIT-Kharagpur
47
COMPUTER SYSTEM
S. Kal,
IIT-Kharagpur
48
A Fiber Optic Data Transmission System
Remote instrumentation system using voltage-tofrequency converter and a frequency-to-voltage converter
Digital Readout Remote instrumentation System
S. Kal,
IIT-Kharagpur
49

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WELCOME TO BASIC ELECTRONICS COURSE

DEVICES ANALOG CIRCUIT DIGITAL CIRCUIT

Basic Concept of Electronics

Random motion of electrons in metal by collision with nuclei

Average drift of electrons

Current in a metal wire has many effects :

A rapidly oscillating electron emits Radio Waves.

A BRIEF HISTORY OF ELECTRONICS

J. J. Thomson experimentally verified existence of electron.

1912 1930 1950 1963

Electromechanical calculator. ( IBM, USA, size - 17m and 3 m high )

Entire computer on a single chip 6 mm x 6 mm

Microcomputer a general purpose digital processing and control system.

Electronics, as we know it today, to a large extent is a semiconductor-based industry.

Microelectronics Historical Perspective

Oxidation demonstrated in 1953 by Brattain and Bardeen at Bell Telephone Laboratories

Microelectronics Historical Perspective Integrated Circuit 1958

US Patent # 3,138,743 Filed Feb. 6, 1959

Microelectronics Historical Perspective Nobel Prize in 2000

ICs in the early 1960s (four BJTs and several resistors)

ICs in the early 1990s (over one million MOS transistors )

Why silicon for VLSI ?

By adding ppm level of special impurities

There are two types of mobile carriers

Good dielectrics such as SiO2 and Si3N4 can

Silicon ICs Status & Trends

Silicon ICs Status & Trends

1 um 34 Years of Scaling History

Presumed Limit to Scaling

Silicon Chip (~ 2 cm sq.)

Projection 2014: ~ 20 B transistors/ chip

On Size and Scale !

CMOS Device - 2006

High Performance Technology Requirement Table

2003 45 13 1.2 0.21 180

2006 28 10 1.1 0.21 171

2009 20 8 1.0 0.16 144

2012 14 7 0.9 0.14 116

2015 10 6 0.8 0.12 88

2018 7 5 0.7 0.11 60

A Real World Comparison:

486DX 10 Hydrogen atoms 1 nanometer

What Drives The Nanosemiconductor Technology?

Digital Devices: The State Of The

Driven By Three Major Disruptive Forces

First Major Disruptive Force:

Second Major Disruptive Force:

Third Major Disruptive Force:

Lap-top & Cell-phone

Teenagers now spend more time on cell phone than on TV

Personal Computer: The Emerging Consumers

Cell Phones: The Emerging

The Emerging Consumers

The Emerging Consumers

In Summary, The Business

Scaling and Integration

Higher Device Yield

Faster Technology Ramp

Accelerated Defect Learning

Basic Electronics Transducers Devices, components Circuits

In an electronic instrumentation system, the functions of transducer are two-fold :

Listing of different transducers :

4. Acoustical Microphone 5. Chemical 6. Nuclear pH meter Geiger-Muller tube, ionization chamber