Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Factor Correction
1
Advanced Techniques in Power Factor
Correction (PFC)
Prof. Dr. Javier Sebastin
Grupo de Electrnica Industrial
Universidad de Oviedo (Spain)
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
Factor Correction
2
Outline
Introduction
Using a simple resistor to comply with the IEC 61000-3-2 in Class A
Using an inductor to comply with the IEC 61000-3-2 in Class A and in
Class D
Exploring the use of isolated Resistor Emulators as the only
conversion stage for medium-speed response applications
High-efficiency post regulators used to improve the transient
response of Resistors Emulators
Very simple single-stage PFCs
Very simple current shaping techniques for very low-cost applications
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
Factor Correction
3
Outline
Introduction
Using a simple resistor to comply with the IEC 61000-3-2 in Class A
Using an inductor to comply with the IEC 61000-3-2 in Class A and in
Class D
Exploring the use of isolated Resistor Emulators as the only
conversion stage for medium-speed response applications
High-efficiency post regulators used to improve the transient
response of Resistors Emulators
Very simple single-stage PFCs
Very simple current shaping techniques for very low-cost applications
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
Factor Correction
4
Cheap & reliable
Input current with a
strong harmonic content
Current
Focusing the problem
Introduction (I)
Electronic
circuitry
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
Line
Electronic load
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
Factor Correction
5
Load
Electronic
load
Line impedance
Line
Load
Load
Introduction (II)
Current
Input
voltage
Distorted
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Factor Correction
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Power Factor (PF)
PF=
Input power
Input voltage, rms X Input current, rms
THD=
(Input current, rms)
2
- (Its 1
ST
harmonic, rms)
2
Its 1
ST
harmonic, rms
Introduction (III)
Quantifying the problem
Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)
Each individual harmonic
European
regulations
Word used to describe
the problem
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
Factor Correction
7
Introduction (IV)
Power Companies will:
High PF
No harmonics
Electronic equipment
manufacturers will:
Low cost
Reliability
Conflict of interest
Regulations about
harmonics in the line
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
Factor Correction
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Electronic
load
Line impedance
Line
Electronic
load
Electronic
load
Active
Filter
Introduction (V)
Starting solving the problem (I)
Using active filters
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Factor Correction
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Introduction (VI)
Starting solving the problem (II)
Modifying the electronic load Power Factor Correctors
Input
current
Either
or
Electronic
circuitry
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
Electronic load
New
devices
Line
Power Factor Corrector
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
Factor Correction
10
Introduction (VII)
However: the value of the Power Factor is not
important.
According to the European Regulations, only the value
of each individual harmonic is important.
We should use words such as Low-Frequency
Harmonic Reduction and Low-Frequency
Harmonic Reducer instead of Power Factor
Correction and Power Factor Corrector.
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
Factor Correction
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Focusing the course
Introduction (VIII)
Line
Single-Phase
Three-Phase
Conversion
AC/DC
AC/AC
Power
High power
Low-medium power
(230V, <16A)
Reactive
energy
Recovery to line
No recovery
Connection
External connection
Modifying AC/DC topology
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
Factor Correction
12
What is the right choice in PFC?
It strongly depends on the application. There is not
magic solutions.
It depends on:
The regulations that must be applied
The type of equipment
The output power
The input voltage range
The output voltage
The dynamic response needed
The main objective in the design
Introduction (IX)
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
Factor Correction
13
Class
A
Yes Balanced
3u equipment?
Portable
tool?
No
Lighting
equipment?
No
PC or TV &
P<600 W?
No
No
Class
B
Yes
Class
C
Yes
Class
D
Yes
Introduction (X)
The European Regulation
IEC 61000-3-2
Power supplies are either
Class A or Class D
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
Factor Correction
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Harmonic Class A [A] Class D [mA/W]
3 2.3 3.4
5 1.14 1.9
7 0.77 1.0
9 0.40 0.5
11 0.33 0.35
13 0.21 0.296
15 s n s 39 2.25/n 3.85/n
Introduction (XI)
Harmonic limits for Class A and Class D
Very Important!!
Limits in Class A are absolute values [A]
Limits in Class D are relative values [mA/W]
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
Factor Correction
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Harmonic Limits in
Class A [mA]
Limits in
Class D [mA]
3 2300 340
5 1140 190
7 770 100
9 400 50
11 330 35
13 210 29.6
15 s n s 39 2250/n 385/n
Introduction (XII)
Example #1: a 100 W (low-power) converter
Limits in Class A are less strict for low-power applications
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
Factor Correction
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Harmonic Limits in
Class A [mA]
Limits in
Class D [mA]
3 2300 1700
5 1140 950
7 770 500
9 400 250
11 330 175
13 210 148
15 s n s 39 2250/n 1925/n
Introduction (XIII)
Example #2: a 500 W (medium-power) converter
Limits in Class A and in Class D become more
similar for medium-power applications
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
Factor Correction
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Introduction (XIV)
Battery
Example #1: a 100 W (low-power) battery
charger (Class A)
Line
current
Line
voltage
This waveform complies
with the regulations!!!
PF = 0.46 and
THD = 193.1%
Very cheap systems for low-frequency harmonic attenuation
can be used to obtain this type of waveform
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
Factor Correction
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Introduction (XV)
Example #1: a 100 W (low-power) TV set (Class D)
Line
current
Line
voltage
A slightly more complex system
must be used (it is still very simple)
Line
voltage
Line
current
PF = 0.748 and
THD = 88.8%
It does not comply with
the regulations
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Introduction (XVI)
Example #2: two 500 W (low-power) pieces of
equipment
The advantages of being Class A vanish at 500 W
Line
voltage
Line
current
PF = 0.748 and
THD = 88.8%
Line
voltage
Line
current
PF = 0.705 and
THD = 100.5%
Class A
Class D
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Factor Correction
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Introduction (XVII)
The complexity of the systems for low-frequency
harmonic attenuation increases with the power
Line
voltage
Line
current
PF = 0.705 and
THD = 100.5%
PF = 0.963 and
THD = 28.1%
Line
current
Line
voltage
Example #3: same Class, different power
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Factor Correction
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Introduction (XVIII)
Influence of the input voltage range (I)
European range: 190 Vac 265 Vac
American range: 85 Vac 130 Vac
Universal range: 85 Vac 265 Vac
Two ranges (American and European), but a
mechanical switch permitted for changing the
range
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Factor Correction
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Introduction (XIX)
Influence of the input voltage range (II)
Electronic
circuitry
Line
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
Electronic load
PFC
Single range (either European or American) and simple system for
low-frequency harmonic attenuation (PFC)
Moderate change in the input voltage of the DC/DC converter
Slight penalty in efficiency
Simple PFC with
single range
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Factor Correction
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Introduction (XX)
Electronic
circuitry
Line
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
Electronic load
PFC
Universal range and simple PFC
Large change in the input voltage of the DC/DC converter
Significant penalty in efficiency
Complex PFCs which guaranty constant input voltage are interesting
Complex PFC with
universal range
Influence of the input voltage range (III)
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Factor Correction
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Introduction (XXI)
Is it compatible with the
use of simple PFC?
Electronic
circuitry
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
Electronic load
Electronic
circuitry
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
Electronic load
230V
110V
Power supply for single
range without PFC
Power supply for double
range without PFC
Two ranges selected by a switch
Influence of the input voltage range (IV)
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Factor Correction
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Introduction (XXII)
Simple PFC placed
on the DC side
110V
230V
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
Simple
PFC
Simple
PFC
110V
230V
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
Simple
PFC Simple PFC placed
on the AC side
Influence of the input voltage range (V)
Two ranges selected by a switch and PFC
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
Factor Correction
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Current
Introduction (XXIII)
Electronic
circuitry
Line
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
Electronic load
Electronic
circuitry
Line
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
as
Electronic load
Resistor
Emulator
Current
Changing the place of the DC/DC
converter Resistor Emulator concept
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
Factor Correction
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Introduction (XXIV)
Using only a Resistor Emulator (I)
Line
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
as
Resistor
Emulator
O
u
t
p
u
t
Current
Line
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
O
u
t
p
u
t
Current
Energy stored at high voltage
(325 V DC) small size
Energy stored at the output
voltage the size depends on
the voltage
It is not a good solution for low-voltage
(<12 V DC) applications
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
Factor Correction
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Introduction (XXV)
Using only a Resistor Emulator (II)
Power
Line
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
O
u
t
p
u
t
Current
Voltage
Line
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
as
Resistor
Emulator
O
u
t
p
u
t
Current
Voltage
Power
No devices to store
energy at 100 Hz
Energy stored here
The converter is in charge of
cancelling the output ripple
Little (or no) power processed at
specific moments the output
ripple depends on the capacitor
It is not a good solution when
low output-ripple is needed
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
Factor Correction
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Introduction (XXVI)
Using only a Resistor Emulator (III)
Power
Line
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
as
Resistor
Emulator
O
u
t
p
u
t
Current
Voltage
Line
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
O
u
t
p
u
t
Current
Voltage
Power
No devices to store energy at 100 Hz
Energy stored here
The converter can get energy from the
capacitor to maintain the output voltage
when the output current changes
Little (or no) power processed at
specific moments no energy
available to maintain the output
voltage when the output current
changes
It is not a good solution when fast
transient response is needed
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
Factor Correction
30
Introduction (XXVII)
In the case of fast transient response
needed:
Power supply
Electronic
circuitry
Line
Simple or
complex
PFC
DC/DC
converter
Two separate
stages
Electronic
circuitry
Line
Power supply
Simple
PFC
section
DC/DC
converter
section
One integrated
stage
A DC/DC converter
(or section) is needed
DC/DC
converter
DC/DC
converter
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
Factor Correction
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Cost
Size
Weight
Efficiency
Only comply with the regulations
High Power Factor and low Total Harmonic
Distortion (for marketing reasons)
Introduction (XXVIII)
What are the design priorities?
They also determine the right choice
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
Factor Correction
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Outline
Introduction
Using a simple resistor to comply with the IEC 61000-3-2 in
Class A
Using an inductor to comply with the IEC 61000-3-2 in Class A and in
Class D
Exploring the use of isolated Resistor Emulators as the only
conversion stage for medium-speed response applications
High-efficiency post regulators used to improve the transient
response of Resistors Emulators
Very simple single-stage PFCs
Very simple current shaping techniques for very low-cost applications
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
Factor Correction
33
Using a resistor (I)
Looking for the simplest solution (I)
Line
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
(120 W)
200 F
4 X 1N4007
Capacitor voltage
Input current
Class D
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
Factor Correction
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Using a resistor (II)
Looking for the simplest solution (II)
Input current
Order Measured [A] Limits Class D [A]
1 0.542 -
3 0.527 0.408
5 0.498 0.228
7 0.457 0.12
9 0.407 0.06
11 0.351 0.042
13 0.294 0.036
15 0.239 0.031
17 0.192 0.027
19 0.155 0.024
21 0.132 0.022
23 0.121 0.02
25 0.117 0.018
27 0.115 0.017
29 0.112 0.016
31 0.105 0.015
33 0.097 0.014
35 0.087 0.013
37 0.079 0.012
39 0.073 0.012
The compliance is very far
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
Harmonic order
Input current [A]
Limits in Class D
Simulated
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
Factor Correction
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Using a resistor (III)
Looking for the simplest solution (III)
What about a Class A piece of equipment?
Line
Battery Charger
DC/DC
converter
(120 W) 200 F
4 X 1N4007
Battery
Capacitor voltage
Input current
Class A
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
Factor Correction
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Using a resistor (IV)
Looking for the simplest solution (IV)
Input current
It does not comply, but it
is very near to comply
Order Measured [A] Limits Class A [A]
1 0.542 -
3 0.527 2.3
5 0.498 1.14
7 0.457 0.77
9 0.407 0.4
11 0.351 0.33
13 0.294 0.21
15 0.239 0.15
17 0.192 0.132
19 0.155 0.118
21 0.132 0.107
23 0.121 0.098
25 0.117 0.09
27 0.115 0.083
29 0.112 0.078
31 0.105 0.073
33 0.097 0.068
35 0.087 0.064
37 0.079 0.061
39 0.073 0.058
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
Harmonic order
Input current [A]
Limits in Class A
Simulated
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
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Using a resistor (V)
Looking for the simplest solution (V)
Order Measured [A] Limits Class A [A]
1 0.528 -
3 0.5 2.3
5 0.448 1.14
7 0.378 0.77
9 0.3 0.4
11 0.225 0.33
13 0.164 0.21
15 0.128 0.15
17 0.115 0.132
19 0.113 0.118
21 0.109 0.107
23 0.1 0.098
25 0.087 0.09
27 0.076 0.083
29 0.07 0.078
31 0.067 0.073
33 0.066 0.068
35 0.063 0.064
37 0.058 0.061
39 0.053 0.058
Line
Battery Charger
DC/DC
converter
(120 W) 100 F
4 X 1N4007
Let us change the value of the bulk capacitor
Capacitor voltage
Input current
Almost compliance
with 100 F
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
Factor Correction
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Using a resistor (VI)
Looking for the simplest solution (VI)
However, the value of the bulk capacitor cannot be
freely chosen because:
Hold-up time requirements
Input voltage range of the DC/DC converter
Another solution must be found
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
Factor Correction
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Using a resistor (VII)
The simplest solution: to add a resistor
Electronic
circuitry
Class A
Line
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
DC side
Electronic
circuitry
Class A
Line
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
AC side
R
R
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
Factor Correction
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@ 230V ac, R =1.5 O
i
input peak
= 4.12 A
P
resistor
= 1.85 W
Using a resistor (VIII)
Order Measured [A]
with R=0 O
Measured [A]
with R=1 O
Measured [A]
with R=1.5 O
Limits
Class A [A]
1 0.542 0.539 0.538 -
3 0.527 0.52 0.516 2.3
5 0.498 0.484 0.474 1.14
7 0.457 0.433 0.416 0.77
9 0.407 0.372 0.347 0.4
11 0.351 0.304 0.273 0.33
13 0.294 0.237 0.2 0.21
15 0.239 0.173 0.135 0.15
17 0.192 0.12 0.084 0.132
19 0.155 0.084 0.056 0.118
21 0.132 0.067 0.053 0.107
23 0.121 0.066 0.057 0.098
25 0.117 0.067 0.058 0.09
27 0.115 0.065 0.052 0.083
29 0.112 0.058 0.041 0.078
31 0.105 0.047 0.029 0.073
33 0.097 0.036 0.021 0.068
35 0.087 0.028 0.02 0.064
37 0.079 0.025 0.022 0.061
39 0.073 0.026 0.024 0.058
C
bulk
= 200 F
P
converter
= 120 W
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
Factor Correction
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@ 230V ac, R =1.5 O
i
input peak
= 4.12 A
P
resistor
= 1.85 W
Using a resistor (IX)
C
bulk
= 200 F
P
converter
= 120 W
Input-current waveform with a resistor
Capacitor voltage
Input current
Capacitor voltage
Input current
@ 230V ac, R =0 O
i
input peak
= 6.37 A
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Using a resistor (X)
Design procedure
Obtain the resistor
(from graphs)
Use the simplest
method
Other
method must
be used
Choose bulk
capacitor
Input power
Calculate losses @ full
power, 190 Vac
Acceptable
losses?
NO
YES
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
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50 100 150 200 250 300
1
2
3
4
R [O]
Output power [W]
Using a resistor (XI)
Value of the resistor needed to comply
with the IEC 61000-3-2 in Class A as a
function of the input power (bulk capacitor
in F per watt as parameter)
0.5 F/W 1 F/W
2 F/W
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Using a resistor (XII)
Absolute power losses at full
load and minimum line voltage
(maximum line current)
Output power [W]
Power losses [W]
50 100 150 200 250 300
5
10
15
20
25
1 F/W
2 F/W
0.5 F/W
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
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Using a resistor (XIII)
Relative power losses (P
R
/P
output)
at
full load and minimum line voltage
(maximum line current)
Output Power [W]
Relative losses [%]
50 100 150 200 250 300
2
4
6
8
10
0.5 F/W
1 F/W
2 F/W
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Using a resistor (XIV)
Design example:
P
output
=150W, C=150F (1F/W)
50 100 150 200 250 300
1
2
3
4
R [O]
Output power [W]
1 F/W
2.5 O
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Using a resistor (XV)
Output power [W]
Power losses [W]
50 100 150 200 250 300
5
10
15
20
25
1 F/W
5 W
Power losses in the resistor at
P
output
=150W and V
line
=190V
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Using a resistor (XVI)
Power limits for this solution
Output Power [W]
Relative losses [%]
50 100 150 200 250 300
2
4
6
8
10
1 F/W
Very
interesting
Not so
interesting
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Power losses
strongly increase at
low line voltage
Using a resistor (XVII)
P
converter
= 120 W
C
bulk
= 200 F
R=1.5 O
Using this solution for Universal line
voltage range
Line
Quantity
@ 230V @ 110V
i
input peak
4.12 A 5.09A
i
input RMS
1.11 A 1.853 A
P
losses resistor
1.85 W 5.15 W
Line
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
P
converter
C
bulk
4 X 1N4007
R
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Using a resistor (XVIII)
Adaptation for operation in two ranges (I)
DC/DC
converter
Electronic
circuitry
Class A
Line
Power supply
R/2
R/2
DC side
230V
110V
AC side
Electronic
circuitry
Class A
DC/DC
converter
Power supply
Line
R
230V
110V
Different operation (AC side & DC side)
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Using a resistor (XIX)
Adaptation for operation in two ranges (II)
Electronic
circuitry
Class A
DC/DC
converter
Power supply
Line
R
230V
110V
i
input 230V
AC side
Electronic
circuitry
Class A
DC/DC
converter
Power supply
Line
R
230V
110V
i
input 110V
Both i
input 110V
and i
input 230V
passing through R
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Using a resistor (XX)
Adaptation for operation in two ranges (III)
DC side
DC/DC
converter
Electronic
circuitry
Class A
Line
Power supply
R/2
R/2
230V
110V
i
input 110V
DC/DC
converter
Electronic
circuitry
Class A
Line
Power supply
R/2
R/2
230V
110V
i
input 230V
i
input 110V
passing through R/2
and i
input 230V
passing through R (better)
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Using a resistor (XXI)
Adaptation for operation in two ranges (IV)
DC/DC
converter
Electronic
circuitry
Class A
Line
Power supply
R/2
R/2
230V
110V
110V
Electronic
circuitry
Class A
DC/DC
converter
Power supply
Line
R
230V
110V
110V
Example:
P
converter
= 120 W
C
bulk
= 2 X 400 F (series)
R=1.5 O
P
losses resistors
= 3.15 W
(total)
P
losses resistor
= 5.27 W
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Impractical due to the fact that the power losses strongly
increase at low line voltage
Using a resistor (XXII)
Power R C losses
@ 230V
losses
@ 190V
losses
@ 110V
losses
@ 85V
100 W 1.6 O 2x220 F 1.3 W 1.6 W 3.8 W 5 W
200 W 3.6 O 2x440 F 8.5 W 11.5 W 29 W 50 W
Adaptation for operation in two ranges (V)
Electronic
circuitry
Class A
DC/DC
converter
Power supply
Line
R
230V
110V
C
C
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Better results with the resistor split into two resistors
Using a resistor (XXIII)
Adaptation for operation in two ranges (VI)
DC/DC
converter
Electronic
circuitry
Class A
Line
Power supply
R/2
R/2
230V
110V
C
C
Power R C losses
@ 230V
losses
@ 190V
losses
@ 110V
losses
@ 85V
100 W 1.6 O 2x220 F 1.3 W 1.6 W 2.1 W 3.1 W
200 W 3.6 O 2x440 F 8.5 W 11.5 W 16 W 25 W
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Line
R/2
R/2
230V
110V
C
C
1 A/div
@ 230V, 100W
2 A/div
@ 110V, 100W
@ 230V, 100W,
2x0.82O, 2W
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
11 19 31 7 15 23 35 27 3
Harmonic Order
Input current [A]
Limits in Class A
Measured
Using a resistor (XXIV)
Experimental results (I)
P
converter
= 100 W
C = 2 X 100 F (series)
R = 2x0.82 O
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Line
R/2
R/2
230V
110V
C
C
2 A/div
@ 230V, 200W
2 A/div
@ 110V, 200W
Using a resistor (XXV)
Experimental results (II)
P
converter
= 200 W
C = 2 X 200 F (series)
R= 2x1.8 O
@ 230V, 200W,
2x1.8O, 10W
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
11 19 31 7 15 23 35 27 3
Harmonic Order
Input current [A]
Limits in Class A
Measured
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Using a resistor (XXVI)
Conclusions of the use of a resistor to
comply with the IEC 61000-3-2
regulations in Class A
This is the simplest possible solution
Low-cost and low-size solution
Very interesting for low-power (P<200-300W) applications
High losses with universal line voltage range (only valid
for P<150W)
The DC bus is not regulated
For the universal line voltage and with a voltage-doubler
with a mechanical switch, it can be used up to 200W
No perfect sinusoidal, but compliance with IEC 61000-3-2
is achieved
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Outline
Introduction
Using a simple resistor to comply with the IEC 61000-3-2 in Class A
Using an inductor to comply with the IEC 61000-3-2 in Class A
and in Class D
Exploring the use of isolated Resistor Emulators as the only
conversion stage for medium-speed response applications
High-efficiency post regulators used to improve the transient
response of Resistors Emulators
Very simple single-stage PFCs
Very simple current shaping techniques for very low-cost applications
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
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60
Using an inductor (I)
Another very simple solution: to add an inductor
Electronic
circuitry
Class A
Line
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
DC side
Electronic
circuitry
Class A
Line
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
AC side
L
L
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
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@ 230V ac, L = 2 mH
i
input peak
= 3.84 A
Order Measured [A]
with L=0 mH
Measured [A]
with L=1 mH
Measured [A]
with L=2 mH
Limits
Class A [A]
1 0.542 0.552 0.545 -
3 0.527 0.531 0.515 2.3
5 0.498 0.493 0.459 1.14
7 0.457 0.438 0.384 0.77
9 0.407 0.374 0.299 0.4
11 0.351 0.303 0.214 0.33
13 0.294 0.232 0.138 0.21
15 0.239 0.167 0.079 0.15
17 0.192 0.11 0.046 0.132
19 0.155 0.067 0.039 0.118
21 0.132 0.042 0.04 0.107
23 0.121 0.036 0.036 0.098
25 0.117 0.037 0.028 0.09
27 0.115 0.037 0.02 0.083
29 0.112 0.032 0.017 0.078
31 0.105 0.025 0.016 0.073
33 0.097 0.019 0.016 0.068
35 0.087 0.016 0.014 0.064
37 0.079 0.015 0.011 0.061
39 0.073 0.015 0.009 0.058
C
bulk
= 200 F
P
converter
= 120 W
Using an inductor (II)
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Using an inductor (III)
Input-current waveform and harmonic
content with an inductor
Capacitor voltage
Input current
Example:
C
bulk
= 200 F
P
converter
= 120 W
L = 2 mH
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
Input current [A]
Limits in Class D
Simulated
Harmonic order
@ 230V, 120 W
@ 230V, 120 W
Harmonic order
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
Input current [A]
Limits in Class A
Simulated
It complies
It does not
comply
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C
bulk
= 200 F
P
converter
= 120 W
Comparing input-current waveform with
an inductor and a resistor for Class A
equipment
@ 230V ac, R =1.5 O
i
input peak
= 4.12 A
P
resistor
= 1.85 W
Capacitor voltage
Input current
Using an inductor (IV)
@ 230V ac, L = 2 mH
i
input peak
= 3.84 A
Capacitor voltage
Input current
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0
5
10
10 ms
0
C = 200 F
C = 800 F
Comparing input-current waveforms with
different bulk capacitor values
Using an inductor (V)
Slightly influence of
the capacitor value
340 V
288 V
8.38 A
C = 200 F
10 ms 20 ms
0
Capacitor
voltage
Input current
0
312 V
300 V
7.55 A
C = 800 F
10 ms 20 ms 0
Capacitor
voltage
Input current
L = 3.3 mH
P
converter
= 400 W
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3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
Harmonic Order
@ 230V, 100 W,
1.7 mH & 47 F
Input current [A]
Limits in Class A
Simulated
20 ms
-5
0
5
3.85 A
10 ms
0
Input current [A]
Time
Using an inductor (VI)
Looking for the most restrictive harmonics (I)
Example: 100 W,
1.7 mH & 47 F
Harmonics 13
th
-17
th
are the most restrictive
at low power
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Using an inductor (VII)
Example: 600 W,
7.8 mH & 330 F
Harmonics 3
rd
-5
th
are
the most restrictive at
high power
Looking for the most restrictive harmonics (II)
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19
Harmonic Order
@ 230V, 600 W,
7.8 mH & 330 F
Input current [A]
Limits in Class A
Simulated
-10
0
10
8.68 A
10 ms
20 ms
0
Input current [A]
Time
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100 200 300 400 500 600
2
4
6
8
L [mH]
Output power [W]
0.5 F/W
2 F/W
Using an inductor (VIII)
Value of the minimum inductor needed to comply
with the IEC 61000-3-2 in Class A as a function
of the input power (bulk capacitor in F per watt
as parameter)
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Using an inductor (IX)
Comparing the influence of the bulk capacitor for
the case of the inductor and the resistor
0.5 F/W
2 F/W
100 200 300 400 500 600
2
4
6
8
L [mH]
Output power [W]
50 100 150 200 250 300
1
2
3
4
R [O]
Output power [W]
0.5 F/W
1 F/W
2 F/W
Lower inductor values with
high bulk capacitor values
Erratic influence of the
value of the bulk capacitor
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Design procedure
for Class A
Obtain the inductor
(from graphs)
Use this method
Other
method must
be used
Choose bulk
capacitor
Input power
Calculate the inductor
size
Acceptable
size?
NO
YES
Using an inductor (X)
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100 200 300 400 500 600
2
4
6
8
L [mH]
Output power [W]
0.5 F/W
2 F/W
Using an inductor (XI)
2.7 mH
Design example:
P
output
=200 W, C=100 F (0.5 F/W)
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71
Using an inductor (XII)
What about the inductor size?
We must know the maximum peak value of the input current (at full
load and minimum line voltage) determine the gap and number of
turns
We must know the maximum RMS value of the input current (at full
load and minimum line voltage) determine the wire size (diameter)
and losses
Input power
[W]
L [mH] I
peak
[A] I
RMS
[A]
Equivalent
ferrite
core size
Power losses
(%)
200 2.7
5.33 @ 230V
6.07 @ 190V
1.6 @ 230V
1.88 @ 190V
E30/15/7 0.8
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Using an inductor (XIII)
Inductor size and losses for different
power levels
Input power
[W]
L [mH]
Equivalent
ferrite
core size
Power losses
(%)
100 2 E20/10/5 0.53
200 2.7 E30/15/7 0.8
300 3.4 E42/21/15 0.3
400 4.4 E42/21/15 0.66
500 6.8 E42/21/20 0.57
600 7.8 E42/21/20 1.66
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10 100 1000 10000 100000
0.5
1
1.5
2
B [T]
H [A/m]
B [mT]
10 100 1000 10000
0.01
0.1
1
10
100
P
losses
[kw/m
3
]
Using an inductor (XIV)
Magnetic materials for the inductor (I)
Silicon steel lamination
core (instead of ferrite)
Example: RG11
High induction levels
(1.4 T) are possible
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Magnetic materials for the inductor (II)
Using an inductor (XV)
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Line current
with DC-side
inductor
Capacitor voltage
with DC-side inductor
Time
with AC-side
inductor
with AC-side
inductor
DC-side or AC-side inductor?
Using an inductor (XVI)
DC-side inductor
AC-side
inductor
Exactly the same result if the converter is
working in strong DCM
Example: C
bulk
= 200 F, L = 2 mH, P
converter
= 120 W
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76
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
Input current [A]
Limits in Class D
Simulated
Harmonic order
@ 230V, 120 W
Using an inductor (XVII)
Example: C
bulk
= 200 F, L = 2 mH, P
converter
= 120 W
Low-frequency harmonics are the most significant ones
A considerable increase in the inductance value is needed
What about complying with the IEC
61000-3-2 regulations in Class D?
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3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Harmonic Order
@ 230V, 100W, 41mH & 200F
Input current [A]
Limits in Class D
@ 100W
Simulated
-2
-1
0
1
2
1.42 A
0
10 ms 20 ms
Input current [A]
Time
Looking for the minimum value of L to
comply with the regulations in Class D (I)
Using an inductor (XVIII)
Example: C
bulk
= 200 F, L = 41 mH, P
converter
= 100 W
An inductor of 41 mH is needed for 100 W
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Looking for the minimum value of L to
comply with the regulations in Class D (II)
Using an inductor (XIX)
Example: C
bulk
= 1200 F, L = 7 mH, P
converter
= 600 W
An inductor of 7 mH is needed for 600 W
If we increase the power, the limits will also increase a similar
input-current waveform is enough to comply with the regulations
-10
0
10
8.12 A
0
10 ms 20 ms
Input current [A]
Time
3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
Harmonic Order
0.5
@ 230V, 600W, 7mH & 1200F
Input current [A]
Limits in Class D
@ 600W
Simulated
0
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Using an inductor (XX)
Value of the minimum inductor needed to comply
with the IEC 61000-3-2 in Class D as a function
of the input power (bulk capacitor in F per watt
as parameter)
0.5 F/W
2 F/W
L [mH]
Output power [W]
100 200 300 400 500 600
10
20
30
40
50
The value of the inductors
inductance decreases
when the power increases,
but the size increases
(because it depends on the
square value of the peak
current)
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Using an inductor (XXI)
Inductor size and losses for different
power levels
Input power
[W]
L [mH]
Equivalent
ferrite
core size
Power losses
(%)
100 41 E42/21/15 1
200 21 E42/21/15 2
300 14 E42/21/20 1.1
400 10 E42/21/20 1.25
500 8.7 E42/21/20 1.8
600 6.9 E42/21/20 2.18
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Using an inductor (XXII)
Comparing the value of the minimum inductor
needed to comply with the IEC 61000-3-2 in
Class A and in Class D
0.5 F/W
2 F/W
L [mH]
Output power [W]
100 200 300 400 500 600
10
20
30
40
50
Minimum inductor to
comply in Class D
100 200 300 400 500 600
2
4
6
8
L [mH]
Output power [W]
0.5 F/W
2 F/W
Minimum inductor to
comply in Class A
Lower L values at low power
Similar L values at high power
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Similar L sizes at high power
Lower L sizes at low
power in Class A
Using an inductor (XXIII)
Inductor size and losses for different power levels
Input power
[W]
L [mH] in
Class A
Equivalent
core size in
Class A
Power
losses in
Class A (%)
L [mH] in
Class D
Equivalent
core size in
Class D
Power
losses in
Class D (%)
100 2 E20/10/5 0.53 41 E42/21/15 1
200 2.7 E30/15/7 0.8 21 E42/21/15 2
300 3.4 E42/21/15 0.3 14 E42/21/20 1.1
400 4.4 E42/21/15 0.66 10 E42/21/20 1.25
500 6.8 E42/21/20 0.57 8.7 E42/21/20 1.8
600 7.8 E42/21/20 1.66 6.9 E42/21/20 2.18
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Using an inductor (XXIV)
Adaptation for operation in two ranges (I)
Different operation (AC side & DC side)
AC side
Electronic
circuitry
Class A
DC/DC
converter
Power supply
Line
230V
110V
L
DC/DC
converter
Electronic
circuitry
Class A
Line
Power supply
L/2
L/2
DC side
230V
110V
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Adaptation for operation in two ranges (II)
AC side
Both i
input 110V
and i
input 230V
passing through L
Electronic
circuitry
Class A
DC/DC
converter
Power supply
Line
230V
110V
L
Electronic
circuitry
Class A
DC/DC
converter
Power supply
Line
230V
110V
L
Using an inductor (XXV)
i
input 110V
i
input 230V
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Adaptation for operation in two ranges (II)
DC side
L/2
L/2
DC/DC
converter
Electronic
circuitry
Class A
Line
Power supply
230V
110V
i
input 110V
passing through L/2
and i
input 230V
passing through L
Using an inductor (XXVI)
DC/DC
converter
Electronic
circuitry
Class A
Line
Power supply
L/2
230V
110V
L/2
i
input 110V
i
input 230V
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Line
L
C
0.5 A/div
@ 230V, 100W
Experimental results (I)
Class D
P
converter
= 100 W
C = 47 F
L = 41 mH
Using an inductor (XXVII)
5 9 13 21 25 29 33
0.1
0.2
0.3
37 17
@ 230V, 100W,
41 mH
Harmonic order
Input current [A]
Limits in Class D
Measured
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87
Line
L
C
1 A/div
@ 230V, 100W
Experimental results (II)
Class A
P
converter
= 100 W
C = 47 F
L = 1.7 mH
Using an inductor (XXVIII)
@ 230V, 100W,
1.7 mH
Harmonic order
Input current [A]
Limits in Class A
Measured
3 15 19 23 27 31 35
1
2
11 9
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Conclusions of the use of an inductor
to comply with the IEC 61000-3-2
regulations in Class A and Class D
This is a very simple solution
Low-cost and high-efficiency (low-losses) solution
Very interesting for low-power (P<200-300W) applications
in Class A
Large inductor size for Class D and high-power Class A
The DC bus is not regulated
For the universal line voltage range, a voltage doubler
with a mechanical switch can be implemented to improve
the circuit operation
No perfect sinusoidal waveform, but compliance with the
IEC 61000-3-2 regulations
Using an inductor (XXVIII)
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Outline
Introduction
Using a simple resistor to comply with the IEC 61000-3-2 in Class A
Using an inductor to comply with the IEC 61000-3-2 in Class A and in
Class D
Exploring the use of isolated Resistor Emulators as the only
conversion stage for medium-speed response applications
High-efficiency post regulators used to improve the transient
response of Resistors Emulators
Very simple single-stage PFCs
Very simple current shaping techniques for very low-cost applications
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90
Using only a RE (I)
Line
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
O
u
t
p
u
t
R or L
Current
Line
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
as
Resistor
Emulator
O
u
t
p
u
t
Current
Passive (L or R) versus active systems to
reduce the harmonic content
Low-cost
Either low-losses or low-size
Non-sinusoidal waveform
solutions for low power
Unregulated voltage across the
capacitor solutions for limited line
voltage range (many times, voltage
doubler needed)
Sinusoidal waveform solutions for any
power
Regulated voltage across the capacitor
solutions for universal line voltage range
A good solution if only the
Resistor Emulator were enough
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Using only a RE (II)
Is only a Resistor Emulator enough to
implement the overall power supply?
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
as
Resistor
Emulator
O
u
t
p
u
t
Energy stored at the output
voltage the size depends on
the voltage
From the point of view of the capacitor size, it is not a bad
solution for medium and high voltage applications (>12 V DC)
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
O
u
t
p
u
t
R or L
Energy stored at high voltage
(325 V DC) small size
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Using only a RE (III)
And, what about the dynamics?
DC/DC
converter
Example of Resistor Emulator control:
control based on an analog multiplier
Lowpass
filter
Why a lowpass filter
here?
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Using only a RE (IV)
The lowpass filter influence (I)
DC/DC
converter
Lowpass
filter
V
ea
V
ea
Input voltage
Current Reference=
V
ea
Sinus
V
ea
Input voltage
Current Reference=
V
ea
Sinus
Filter with very-
low cut-off
frequency
Filter with
high cut-off
frequency
A filter with low cut-off frequency
is needed if a perfect sinusoidal
is required
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Using only a RE (V)
The lowpass filter influence (II)
DC/DC
converter
Lowpass
filter
V
ea
Filter with very low cut-off frequency:
Perfect sinusoidal line current
Very poor dynamic response
If yes, the use of only a Resistor
Emulator as overall power
supply becomes very attractive
And, what about the
dynamic response?
Filter with high cut-off frequency:
Non-perfect sinusoidal line current
But, can we achieve compliance with
the IEC 61000-3-2 and reasonable
dynamic response?
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Using only a RE (VI)
Line current waveform as a function of
the voltage regulator pole frequency f
p
f
p
: 10 Hz
f
p
: 100 Hz
f
p
: 1000 Hz
f
p
: 500 Hz
Voltage
regulator
f
p
time
f [Hz]
-135
-90
-45
0
45
1 10 100 1000 10000
A
R
[]
|A
R
| [dB]
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
f
p
f
p
f
p
f
p
= 1kHz is a practical limit (no
significant phase shift at 100Hz)
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Using only a RE (VII)
Line current waveform as a function of
the voltage regulator DC gain A
R
A
R
= 100
A
R
= 50
f
p
: 10 Hz
f
p
: 100 Hz
f
p
: 1000 Hz
f
p
: 500 Hz
A
R
= 100
is a practical limit
due to the voltage
levels in the
controller
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97
Using only a RE (VIII)
Looking for the worst case
A
R
~ 100
f
p
~1000 Hz
Line current
3
11 21 31
39
0
1
2
3
2.3 A
Harmonic Order
Input current [A]
Limits in Class D
@ 100W
Simulated
Theoretical harmonic content: Only
the third harmonic is present
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DC/DC
converter
Lowpass
filter
V
ea
V
iref
V
1
sinet
R
s
V
iref
= V
1
sinet (V
eao
+ V
ea
sin2et)
V
eao
+ V
ea
sin2et
Using only a RE (IX)
Why is the third harmonic the only one
present in the line current? (I)
V
1
sinet
V
iref
(et) = V
eao
V
1
sinet + 0.5V
1
V
ea
coset - 0.5V
1
V
ea
cos3et
For 0s etst:
i
line DC
i
line DC
(et) = (V
eao
V
1
sinet + 0.5V
1
V
ea
coset - 0.5V
1
V
ea
cos3et)/R
s
Therefore, for 0s etst:
i
line AC
(et) = i
line DC
(et) = (V
eao
V
1
sinet + 0.5V
1
V
ea
coset - 0.5V
1
V
ea
cos3et)/R
s
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Using only a RE (X)
Why is the third harmonic the only one
present in the line current? (II)
Due to the line rectifier:
i
line AC
(et) =
i
line DC
(et) if 0s etst and
-i
line DC
(et) if ts ets0
For t s et s 0:
i
line AC
(et) = -i
line DC
(et) = -i
line DC
(et-t) = -(V
eao
V
1
sin(et-t) + 0.5V
1
V
ea
cos(et-t) -
0.5V
1
V
ea
cos3(et-t))/R
s
= (V
eao
V
1
sinet + 0.5V
1
V
ea
coset - 0.5V
1
V
ea
cos3et)/R
s
i
line DC
(et)
et
et-t
i
line AC
(et)
Due to the fact that the frequency of i
line DC
is 2e:
i
line DC
(et) = i
line DC
(et-t)
Therefore, for -ts etst:
i
line AC
(et) = (V
eao
V
1
sinet + 0.5V
1
V
ea
coset - 0.5V
1
V
ea
cos3et)/R
s
There are only components of e and 3e
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Using only a RE (XI)
IEC 61000-3-2 regulations in Class A can be
complied up to very high power levels
Looking for the maximum power compatible
with complying with the IEC 61000-3-2
regulations in Class A (I)
A
R
~ 50-100
f
p
~1000 Hz
Line current
A
R
Output ripple=1 % Output ripple=2 %
50 3680 W 3400 W
100 3400 W 1700 W
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Using only a RE (XII)
Looking for the maximum power
compatible with complying with the IEC
61000-3-2 regulations in Class A (II)
Theoretical
Theoretical
Line current obtained
by simulation
A
R
= 100,
f
C
: 1 kHz
0
1
2
3
A
R
= 100,
f
C
: 500 Hz
0
1
2
3
Simulated
Simulated
The theoretical and the simulated
waveforms are slightly different
The cause is the output voltage
ripple.
Due to this, the actual ripple is
not exactly sinusoidal
A
R
Output ripple=1 % Output ripple=2 %
50 3600 W 2500 W
100 2600 W 1300 W
Compliance up to very high
power levels is achieved
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
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Using only a RE (XIII)
Can we get a very fast transient
response if we have a very fast
output voltage feedback loop?
The dynamics depends on
the capacitor
The capacitor is recharged
each 10ms (100 Hz) the
faster response is 10 ms
Line
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
as
Resistor
Emulator
O
u
t
p
u
t
No devices to store
energy at 100 Hz
Power
Voltage
Little (or no) power processed at
specific moments no energy
available to maintain the output
voltage when the output current
changes, except the energy
stored in the capacitor
Current
Energy
stored here
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Using only a RE (XIV)
Simulating the dynamic response
The output voltage takes 90 ms in
recovering the steady state
f
C
= 10 Hz
Output voltage
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
360
380
400
420
40 ms
90 ms
Time (ms)
4300 W 1700 W
f
C
= 1kHz
20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (ms)
360
370
380
390
400
410
2600 W 400 W
10 ms
Output voltage
The output voltage takes 10 ms in
recovering the steady state
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Using only a RE (XV)
Resistor Emulator topologies: low power
Line Power supply
Load
(Electronic
circuitry)
Voltage
Current
Voltage
Current
Line
Power supply
Load
(Electronic
circuitry)
Flyback
based
SEPIC
based
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
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105
Using only a RE (XVI)
Resistor Emulator topologies: medium power
Line
Power supply
Load
(Electronic
circuitry)
Voltage
Current
Line
Power supply
Load
(Electronic
circuitry)
Voltage
Current
Current-fed Push-Pull based
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
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Using only a RE (XVII)
Resistor Emulator topologies: high power
Line
Power supply
Load
(Electronic
circuitry)
Voltage
Current
Current-fed Full-bridge based
Line
Power supply
Voltage
Current
Load
(Electronic
circuitry)
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Using only a RE (XVIII)
Example of application: a power supply
for a 300 + 300 W audio amplifier (I)
Flyback based
Universal line voltage
Flyback with 2 Cool-MOS in parallel
10 ms dynamic response is good enough for this application
Line
Power supply
300 W audio
amplifier
(Channel Right)
300 W audio
amplifier
(Channel Left)
+70 V
-70 V
GND
85-250 V
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
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108
Using only a RE (XIX)
Example of application: a power supply
for a 300 + 300 W audio amplifier (II)
300 + 300 W
audio amplifier
Power supply
For Behringer
Developed at the
University of Oviedo
(GEI group)
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
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109
0.5 A/div 5ms/div
A
R
= 10
f
C
= 1 kHz
A
R
= 25 f
C
= 1 kHz
0.5 A/div 5ms/div
A
R
= 40 f
C
= 1 kHz
0.5 A/div 5ms/div
0.5 A/div 5ms/div
A
R
= 10
f
C
= 10 Hz
Simulated Result
Simulated Result
Simulated Result Simulated Result
Using only a RE (XX)
Experimental results: line waveforms
Resistor Emulator based on a 300 W boost converter
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
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110
1/3 Full load Full load
60 ms
f
C
= 10 Hz
Using only a RE (XXI)
Experimental results: transient response
10 ms
f
C
= 1kHz
1/3 Full load
Full load
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
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111
Using only a RE (XXII)
Conclusions of the use of isolated Resistor
Emulators as the only conversion stage for
medium-speed response applications (I)
Many applications do not need fast dynamic response. In
these cases conventional Resistor Emulators (like flyback)
can be used directly as power supply with no second stage
and with several advantages:
Low cost and size (no second stage)
Very low harmonic content
Can be used in high and low power applications.
Can be used with universal line voltage
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
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Using only a RE (XXIII)
Conclusions of the use of isolated Resistor
Emulators as the only conversion stage for
medium-speed response applications (II)
The limitations in the transient response are:
The 100-120 Hz output voltage ripple only depends on the
capacitor value
This ripple ripple cannot be reduced by increasing the
corner frequency of the output-voltage feedback loop
The maximum effective corner frequency is about 1kHz
(10 times the ripple frequency)
The minimum response time is 10-8.3 ms (one 100-120 Hz
cycle)
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Using only a RE (XXIV)
Conclusions of the use of isolated Resistor
Emulators as the only conversion stage for
medium-speed response applications (III)
This solution should not be used if the output voltage is
relatively low (lower than 12 V) due to the fact that the bulk
capacitor is placed just at the output, which means:
Energy stored at low voltage Large value of the
capacitor size
High current levels passing through the capacitor
Large capacitor losses due to the ESR
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
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114
Outline
Introduction
Using a simple resistor to comply with the IEC 61000-3-2 in Class A
Using an inductor to comply with the IEC 61000-3-2 in Class A and in
Class D
Exploring the use of isolated Resistor Emulators as the only
conversion stage for medium-speed response applications
High-efficiency post regulators used to improve the transient
response of Resistors Emulators
Very simple single-stage PFCs
Very simple current shaping techniques for very low-cost applications
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
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115
DC/DC
converter
Lowpass
filter
High-efficiency post-regulators (I)
f
p
: 1000 Hz
f
p
: 10 Hz
Can we improve the dynamic response
of a Resistor Emulator with a low
penalty in the converter efficiency?
90 ms
10 ms
A
R
Output voltage
20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (ms)
f [Hz]
-135
-90
-45
0
45
1 10 100 1000 10000
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
|A
R
| [dB]
A
R
[]
Time (ms)
10
Line curent
f
p
f
p
The minimum response time is
10-8.3 ms (one 100-120 Hz cycle)
Another stage can be connected to
improve the transient response
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
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116
DC/DC
converter
Lowpass
filter
Line
High-efficiency post-regulators (II)
Characteristic of the high-efficiency
post regulators
+
-
V
1
+
-
V
O
Output
High-
efficiency
post-
regulators
Common characteristics of all high-
efficiency post-regulators:
Low additional cost and size
Only a fraction of the total power
undergoes a power switching processing
Very high efficiency: 96-98%
No short-circuit protection in the post-
regulator
V
1
and V
O
are voltages of similar values
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
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High-efficiency post-regulators (III) Use of the high-efficiency post regulators
in multiple-output applications
Lowpass
filter
Line
+
-
V
1
+
-
V
O
Output
High-
efficiency
post-
regulators
10 ms
f
p
: 1000 Hz
90 ms
f
p
: 10 Hz
Some slow or medium-speed outputs and
some fast response outputs
f
p
: 10 Hz
f
p
: 1000 Hz
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
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118
High-efficiency post-regulators (IV)
Operation principle of the high-
efficiency post regulators
DC/DC
converter
Lowpass
filter
Line
+
-
V
1
+
-
V
O
Output
How can we implement the
voltage source?
+ -
V
S
Time
v
1
v
O
v
S
High-efficiency
post-regulators
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
Factor Correction
119
?
High-efficiency post-regulators (V)
Implementing the
voltage source V
S
(I)
DC/DC
converter
Lowpass
filter
Line
+
-
V
1
+
-
V
O
Output
+ -
V
S
High-efficiency
post-regulators
Small
DC/DC
converter
Where should we
connect the input port
of this converter?
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
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120
DC/DC
converter
Lowpass
filter
Line
+
-
V
1
High-efficiency post-regulators (VI)
Option #1: connect the input port to an
additional Resistor Emulator output
Implementing the
voltage source V
S
(II)
+
-
V
O
Output
High-efficiency
post-regulators
+ -
V
S
Small
DC/DC
converter
One additional
output
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
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121
DC/DC
converter
Lowpass
filter
Line
+
-
V
1
High-efficiency post-regulators (VII)
Option #2: connect the input port to the
Resistor Emulator output
Implementing the voltage
source V
S
(III)
+
-
V
O
Output
High-efficiency
post-regulators
+ -
V
S
Small
DC/DC
converter
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
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122
High-efficiency post-regulators (VIII)
Implementing the voltage
source V
S
(IV)
+
-
V
1
+
-
V
O
High-efficiency post-
regulators
+ -
V
S
Small
DC/DC
converter
+
-
V
1
+
-
V
O
High-efficiency
post-regulators
+ -
V
S
Small
DC/DC
converter
V
2
Option #1: connect the input
port to an additional output of
the Resistor Emulator
Option #2: connect the input
port to the Resistor
Emulator output
Two-Input Buck (TIBuck)
Series-Switching post-
Regulator (SSPR)
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123
High-efficiency post-regulators (IX)
Why is the efficiency of these post-
regulators very high?
Time
v
1
v
O
v
S
V
1
, V
O
>> V
S
P
1
, P
O
>> P
S
+
-
V
O
DC/DC
converter
Lowpass
filter
+
-
V
1
High-efficiency
post-regulators
+ -
V
S
Small
DC/DC
converter
I
O
The Small DC/DC converter is processing
only a small part of the output power
Low losses in the post-regulator
High efficiency post-regulator
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124
High-efficiency post-regulators (X)
Why is not possible to implement a
over-load or short-circuit protection
in these post-regulators?
then V
O
= V
1
= 0
+
-
V
O
DC/DC
converter
Lowpass
filter
+
-
V
1
High-efficiency
post-regulators
+ -
V
S
Small
DC/DC
converter
I
O
The over-load or short-circuit
protection must be implemented
in the Resistor Emulator
0
A over-load occurs
If V
S
= 0,
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
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125
High-efficiency post-regulators (XI)
Introducing the Two-Input Buck
(TIBuck)
This is a Buck converter with
two inputs instead of one
+
-
V
1
+
-
V
O
High-efficiency
post-regulators
+ -
V
S
Small
DC/DC
converter
V
2
+
-
V
1
V
2
+
-
V
O
DC/DC converter
High-efficiency
post-regulators
V
S
+
-
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
Factor Correction
126
+
-
V
O
+
-
V
1
V
2
Standard
controller
Resistor
Emulator
controller
High-efficiency post-regulators (XII)
Single-output Resistor Emulator
based on a Flyback + a TIBuck
post-regulator
TIBuck
post-regulators
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
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127
High-efficiency post-regulators (XIII)
Multiple-output Resistor Emulator
based on a Flyback + a TIBuck
post-regulator
+
-
V
O
+
-
V
1
V
2
Standard
controller
Resistor
Emulator
controller
+
-
V
3
-
+
V
4
TIBuck
post-regulators
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
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128
V
1
> V
O
V
QMAX
= V
1
V
DMAX
= V
1
V
O
= V
1
d
(d is the duty cycle)
V
2
> V
O
> V
1
V
QMAX
= V
2
-V
1
V
DMAX
= V
2
-V
1
V
O
= V
2
d + V
1
(1-d)
(from volts-second balance)
Buck
V
1
V
O
+ V
Q
-
+
V
D
-
TIBuck
V
2
V
1
V
O
+ V
Q
-
+
V
D
-
High-efficiency post-regulators (XIV)
Comparing Buck and TIBuck
converters
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
Factor Correction
129
V
O
= V
2
d + V
1
(1-d) =
Poorly
regulated
Controlled
High-efficiency post-regulators (XV)
DC equivalent circuit
for the TIBuck
(V
2
-V
1
)d + V
1
(V
2
-V
1
)d
V
1
V
O
+
PWM
-
Regulated
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
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130
V
2
range
Voltages
Time
V
O
V
2
V
1
+
V
D
-
V
O
+ V
Q
-
PWM
+
-
V
1
range
High-efficiency post-regulators (XVI)
Relationship between input
and output voltages (I)
ALWAYS
V
2
> V
O
> V
1
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131
High-efficiency post-regulators (XVII)
+
-
V
O
+
-
V
1
V
2
Relationship between input
and output voltages (II)
V
O
Voltages
Time
v
2
v
1
Transient response
Steady state
ALWAYS V
2
> V
O
> V
1
, taking into account the
worse case of transient response and ripple
Case of being used as post-regulator of a Resistor Emulator
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High-efficiency post-regulators (XVIII)
Comparing filter inductance for
Buck and TIBuck converters (I)
Buck
V
1
V
O
+
V
Filter
-
L
B
TIBuck
V
2
V
1
V
O
L
TB
V
Filter
-
+
Time
V
Filter
V
O
V
2
V
1
V
Filter
Time
V
O
V
1
Lower value in the case of
the TIBuck converter (in
practice, ~3 times lower)
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
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133
CCM: 2L/RT > K
CRIT
DCM: 2L/RT < K
CRIT
High-efficiency post-regulators (XIX)
Comparing filter inductance for
Buck and TIBuck converters (II)
Boundary between continuous and discontinuous conduction modes
TIBuck
V
2
/
V
1
=4
K
CRIT
d
(duty cycle)
Buck
1
0
0 1
1.25
2
3
) d 1 (
CRIT
K =
Buck:
1 ) 1
1
V /
2
V ( d
) 1
1
V /
2
V )( d 1 ( d
CRIT
K
+
=
TIBuck:
Lower value in the case
of the TIBuck converter
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
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High-efficiency post-regulators (XX)
Explaining the high efficiency of
the TIBuck converter (I)
d = 0.55
P
Losses
= 10 W
q = 90 / 100 = 90%
V
OB
= 50 V
I
O
= 1.8 A
P
OB
= 90 W
Realistic case for a Buck converter:
V
G
= 100 V
I
G
= 1 A
P
G
= 100 W
R
= V
OB
/I
O
= 27.8 O
V
G
V
OB
Buck
R
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
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135
V
G
V
OB
Buck
V
OB
= 50 V
I
O
= 1.8 A
P
OB
= 90 W
V
G
= 100 V
I
G
= 1 A
P
G
= 100 W
d = 0.55
P
Losses
= 10 W
High-efficiency post-regulators (XXI)
Explaining the high efficiency of
the TIBuck converter (II)
I
O
= 1.8 A
I
O
= 1.8 A
V
1
= 300 V
P
1
= 540 W
We are processing 540 W FREE !!
q = (90 + 540) / (100 + 540) = 98.4 %
I
O
= 1.8 A R
1
= V
1
/I
O
= 166.7 O
V
1
= 300 V
P
1
= 540 W
V
1
I
O
I
O
R
1
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High-efficiency post-regulators (XXII) Explaining the high efficiency of
the TIBuck converter (III)
V
OB
= 50 V
I
O
= 1.8 A
P
OB
= 90 W
I
O
= 1.8 A
V
1
= 300 V
P
1
= 540 W
I
O
= 1.8 A
V
1
= 300 V
P
1
= 540 W
V
G
= 100 V
I
G
= 1 A
P
G
= 100 W
27.8 O
166.7 O
d = 0.5
I
2
I
1
d = 0.5
V
1
V
2
194.5 O
I
O
= 1.8 A
V
O
= V
OB
+ V
1
= 350 V
P
O
= P
OB
+ P
1
= 630 W
q = 630 / 640 = 98.4%
I
2
= I
G
= 1 A
I
1
= I
O
- I
G
= 0.8 A
V
2
= V
G
+ V
1
= 400 V
P
2
= 400 W
P
1
= 240 W
P
i
= P
2
+ P
1
=640
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137
High-efficiency post-regulators (XXIII) Explaining the high efficiency of
the TIBuck converter (IV)
The closer V
2
and V
1
(and,
therefore V
O
) the higher
the efficiency
V
2
V
1
V
O
V
1
V
2
V
1
V
O
-V
1
V
1
V
1
V
2
V
1
V
O
-V
1
V
1
V
1
V
2
V
1
V
O
-V
1
V
1
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High-efficiency post-regulators (XXIV) Explaining the high efficiency of
the TIBuck converter (V)
q
TB
is the TIBuck efficiency
V
1
V
2
V
1
V
O
-V
1
V
1
q
TB
=1
q
B
=50%
75%
90%
85%
0.4 0.6 0.8 1
100
80
60
TIbuck efficiency
V
1
/V
O
O
1
B
B
TB
V
V
) (1- 1- q
q
= q
q
B
is the Buck-part efficiency
High efficiency TIbuck
with a limited efficiency
in the Buck part
q
TB
=96.6%
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
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139
High-efficiency post-regulators (XXV)
Small-signal transfer functions of
the TIBuck converter
Similar to the case of a Buck converter, but faster due
to the lower values of the output filter components
V
2
V
1
V
O
R
C
TB
L
TB
Output filter
1 s
R
L
s L C
TB 2
TB TB
1
+ +
O
v
D
V
2
-V
1
1-
D
+
+
+
2
v
1
v
d
Oav
i
O
t
i
Oav
I
Oav
i
Oav
Steady-state
Perturbation
Steady-state and perturbed variables
C
B
V
gP
2/t
v
Oav
i
Oav
i
gav
Power Power stage + current loop
i
Cact
Very simple shaping (XX)
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
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247
Very simple shaping (XXI)
C
B
V
gP
2/t
v
Oav
i
Oav
i
gav
Power Power stage + current loop
i
Cact
Input port Output port
)
2
cos
2 2
(sin
R R
R
v 2
i
C C C
1 S
eq gP
gav
|
|
=
From the theoretical study:
Value of i
gav
R
S
= current sensor gain
v
gP
= line voltage (peak value)
2 1
2 1
eq
R R
R R
R
+
=
where:
)
v
i R
cos( a 2
gP
Cact 1
D C
= | t = |
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
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248
Very simple shaping (XXII)
After perturbing i
gav
Input port
gav
(G
gv
)
-1
G
gC
Cact
Power Power stage
+ current loop
)
2
cos
2 2
(sin
R R
R
v 2
i
C C C
1 S
eq gP
gav
|
|
=
V
gP
2/
t
i
gav
Power Power stage
+ current loop
i
Cact
Input port
Small-signal circuit for the input port
gP gv Cact gC gav
v G i
G i
+ =
S
C eq
gC
R
R
G
t
u
=
2
sin
R R
R 2
G
C
S 1
eq
gv
u
=
where:
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
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249
Very simple shaping (XXIII)
C
B
V
gP
2/t
v
Oav
i
Oav
i
gav
Power Power stage + current loop
i
Cact
Input port Output port
From the theoretical study:
Value of i
Oav
v
Oav
= output voltage
where:
) sin (
R R v 2
R
2
v
i
C C
1 S Oav
eq gP
Oav
| |
=
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
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250
Very simple shaping (XXIV)
After perturbing i
Oav
Small-signal circuit for the output port (I)
) sin (
R R v 2
R
2
v
i
C C
1 S Oav
eq gP
Oav
| |
=
Power Power stage
+ current loop
C
B
v
Oav
i
Oav
i
Cact
Output port
Oav OV gP Og Cact OC Oav
v G v G i
G i
+ + =
where:
2
cos 1
cos 1
R V
R V
G
C
2
C
S Oav
eq gP
OC
u
=
C
1 S Oav
eq gP
gP
Oav
Og
sin
R R V
R V
V
I 2
G u
t
=
O Oav
Oav
OV
R
1
V
I
G = =
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Very simple shaping (XXV)
Small-signal circuit for the output port (II)
Power Power stage
+ current loop
C
B
v
Oav
i
Oav
i
Cact
Output port
Power Power stage + current loop
C
B
Oav
G
OC
Cact
-(G
Ov
)
-1
G
Og
v
gP
^
+
-
v
Oav
^
After perturbing i
Oav
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Very simple shaping (XXVI)
Input port
Output port
gav
(G
gv
)
-1
G
gC
Cact
C
B
Oav
G
OC
Cact
-(G
Ov
)
-1
G
Og
v
gP
^
+
-
v
Oav
^
Cact
Power Power stage + current loop
Small-signal circuit for both
input and output ports
The same structure as in the case of the previous
control methods
First-order transfer functions
Different value for the parameters
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Very simple shaping (XXVII)
Transfer function between line
voltage and output voltage
C
B
+
-
v
Oav
^
G
Og
v
gP
^
R
O
i
Oav
^
G
OC
Cact
load O
load O
B
load O
load O
Og
gP
Oav
vOvg
r R
r R
C s 1
r R
r R
G
v
v
) s ( G
+
+
+
= =
First-order transfer function
where:
R
O
=V
O
/I
O
r
load
= dynamic load
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Very simple shaping (XXVIII)
Transfer function between
control and output voltage
C
B
+
-
v
Oav
^
G
Og
v
gP
^ R
O
i
Oav
^
G
OC
Cact
load O
load O
B
load O
load O
OC
Cact
Oav
vOiC
r R
r R
C s 1
r R
r R
G
i
v
) s ( G
+
+
+
= =
Also, first-order transfer function
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Very simple shaping (XXIX)
Variation of transfer function between control
and output voltage with the line voltage (I)
load O
load O
B
load O
load O
OC
Cact
Oav
vOiC
r R
r R
C s 1
r R
r R
G
i
v
) s ( G
+
+
+
= =
Slight variation of G
OC
when V
gP
changes
where:
)
V
I R
cos( a 2
gP
Cact 1
C
= u
1 1.5 2 2.5 3
0
5
10
V
gP
/V
gPmin
G
OC
2
cos 1
cos 1
R V
R V
G
C 2
C
S Oav
eq gP
OC
u
=
being:
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Factor Correction
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Very simple shaping (XXX)
Variation of transfer function between control
and output voltage with the line voltage (II)
1 1.5 2 2.5 3
0
5
10
V
gP
/V
gPmin
G
OC
Control based
on a multiplier
Conduction
Angle Control
Comparing these results with the ones
obtained using control based on a multiplier
G
OC
undergoes a lower
variation in the case of the
Conduction Angle Control.
This fact simplifies the
design of the output-voltage
feedback loop.
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
Factor Correction
257
Line
R
1
Output
R
2
Low-pass
filter
TL431
MCT2
Prototype for experimental results
(based on a Flyback converter)
Very simple shaping (XXXI)
P
O
: 80 W
V
O
: 12 V
V
g
: 190-
265 V AC
Standard
controller
UC 3825
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Factor Correction
258
From the
line-rectifier output
UC 3825s
error amplifier
To the UC 3825s
comparator
+ 5.1 V
+ 5.1 V
MCT2
Current sensor
1 : 50
220
10 K 12 nF
47 K
47 K
3.7 M
820 pF
R
1
R
2
820 pF
33 nF
R
1
= 1M
R
2
= 10 K
Bias
1 K
Implementation of the input-current feedback
loop based on a standard controller for
Switching Mode Power Supplies
Very simple shaping (XXXII)
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Factor Correction
259
Experimental results (I)
R
1
R
2
+
-
v
R2
+
-
v
sensor
@ 190 V AC, full load
1 V/div
v
R2
v
sensor
@ 230 V AC, full load
1 V/div
v
R2
v
sensor
@ 265 V AC, full load
1 V/div
v
R2
v
sensor
Very simple shaping (XXXIII)
|
D
increases
when V
gP
increases
|
D
|
D
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Factor Correction
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@ 230 V AC, full load
1 V/div
v
R2
v
sensor
0.5 V/div
@ 230 V AC, 12 V, 2 A
v
R2
v
sensor
0.2 V/div
v
R2
v
sensor
@ 230 V AC, 12 V, 0.85 A
Experimental results (II)
R
1
R
2
+
-
v
R2
+
-
v
sensor
Very simple shaping (XXXIV)
|
D
increases
when I
O
decreases
|
D
|
D
|
D
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Factor Correction
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@ 190 V AC,
full load
0.33 A/div
@ 230 V AC,
full load
0.33 A/div
@ 265 VAC,
full load
0.33 A/div
0.167 A/div
0.167 A/div 0.167 A/div
@ 190 V AC,
12 V, 2 A
@ 230 V AC,
12 V, 2 A
@ 265 V AC,
12 V, 2 A
Line current
Experimental results (III)
Very simple shaping (XXXV)
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
Factor Correction
262
0
0.2
0.4
Class D limits
Measured
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
nth harmonics
Line current (A)
0
1
2
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
nth harmonics
Class A limits
Measured
Line current (A)
@ 230 V AC, 102.8 W
THD = 24.5%
PF = 0.968
Harmonic content
0.33 A/div
@ 230 V AC,
full load
Experimental results (IV)
Very simple shaping (XXXVI)
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Factor Correction
263
[Volts]
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
t [s]
Cact
(Pspice simulation)
v
O
(t)-V
Oav
i
Cact
i
led
CTR
i
Cact
= CTRi
led
(small-signal model)
v
Oav
(t)
^
Simulated
Experimental results (V)
Very simple shaping (XXXVII)
Verifying the small-signal model (I)
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Factor Correction
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Experimental results (VI)
Very simple shaping (XXXVIII)
Verifying the small-signal model (II)
v
gP
^
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
t [s]
[Volts]
v
gP
^
(Pspice simulation)
v
O
(t)-V
Oav
Simulated
(small-signal model)
v
Oav
(t)
^
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Factor Correction
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Experimental results (VII)
Very simple shaping (XXXIX)
Verifying the small-signal
model (III)
Experimental
i
C
i
led
CTR
i
Cact
= CTRi
led
Measured
Output voltage
Cact
Average small-
signal model
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Factor Correction
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Experimental results (VIII)
Very simple shaping (XL)
Verifying the small-signal
model (IV)
Experimental
Measured Output
voltage
v
gP
^
Average small-
signal model
v
gP
^
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Factor Correction
267
Conclusions of the use of very simple
current shaping techniques for very
low-cost applications (I)
Very simple shaping (XLI)
The Conduction Angle Control method can be
used in CCM (as the control based on a
multiplier)
Low losses (as the control based on a multiplier)
Low cost controller (as Voltage Follower
Control)
Current sensor and current feedback loop
No perfect sinusoidal, but compliance with IEC
61000-3-2 is achieved
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
Factor Correction
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Very simple shaping (XLII)
An average small-signal model of the PFC controlled by
Conduction Angle has been obtained
The transfer functions between control and output voltage
and between input voltage and output voltage have also been
obtained. As in the case of other control methods, they are first-
order transfer functions
However, the transfer function between control and output
voltage is almost constant when the value of the AC input
voltage varies. This fact simplifies the output-voltage feedback
loop
Conclusions of the use of very simple
current shaping techniques for very
low-cost applications (II)