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Database System Concepts Properties of relation tuples are unordered,top to bottom attributes are unendered,left to right each tuple contain exactly one value for each attribute (c)Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3. Database System Concepts Relational Algebra Basic operators select project union set difference Cartesian product rename intersection divide join.
Database System Concepts Properties of relation tuples are unordered,top to bottom attributes are unendered,left to right each tuple contain exactly one value for each attribute (c)Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3. Database System Concepts Relational Algebra Basic operators select project union set difference Cartesian product rename intersection divide join.
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Database System Concepts Properties of relation tuples are unordered,top to bottom attributes are unendered,left to right each tuple contain exactly one value for each attribute (c)Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3. Database System Concepts Relational Algebra Basic operators select project union set difference Cartesian product rename intersection divide join.
Copyright:
Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
Verfügbare Formate
Als PPT, PDF, TXT herunterladen oder online auf Scribd lesen
There are no duplicate tuples Tuples are unordered ,top to bottom Attributes are unordered ,left to right Each tuple contain exactly one value for each attribute Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.2 Database System Concepts Relation Instance The current values (relation instance) of a relation are specified by a table An element t of r is a tuple, represented by a row in a table Jones Smith Curry Lindsay customer-name Main North North Park customer-street Harrison Rye Rye Pittsfield customer-city customer attributes (or columns) tuples (or rows) Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.3 Database System Concepts Relational Algebra Basic operators select project union set difference Cartesian product Rename Intersection Divide Join The operators take one or more relations as inputs and give a new relation as a result. Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.4 Database System Concepts Union Operation Notation: r s Defined as: r s = {t | t e r or t e s} For r s to be valid. 1. r and s must have the same arity(same number of attributes) 2. The attribute domains must be compatible (i.e. it should maintain the closure property) 3. Aggregate function cannot be used with union clause E.g. to find all customers with either an account or a loan [ customer-name (depositor) [ customer-name (borrower) Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.5 Database System Concepts Union Operation Example Relations r, s: r s: A B o o | 1 2 1 A B o | 2 3 r s A B o o | | 1 2 1 3 Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.6 Database System Concepts Set Difference Operation Notation r s Defined as: r s = {t | t e r and t e s} Set differences must be taken between compatible relations. r and s must have the same arity attribute domains of r and s must be compatible
Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.7 Database System Concepts Set Difference Operation Example Relations r, s: r s: A B o o | 1 2 1 A B o | 2 3 r s A B o | 1 1 Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.8 Database System Concepts Set-Intersection Operation Notation: r s Defined as: r s ={ t | t e r and t e s } Assume: r, s have the same arity attributes of r and s are compatible Note: r s = r - (r - s) Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.9 Database System Concepts Set-Intersection Operation - Example Relation r, s:
r s A B o o | 1 2 1 A B o | 2 3 r s A B o 2 Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.10 Database System Concepts Select Operation Notation: o p (r) p is called the selection predicate Defined as: o p (r) = {t | t e r and p(t)} Where p is a formula in propositional calculus consisting of terms connected by : . (and), v (or), (not) Each term is one of: <attribute> op <attribute> or <constant> where op is one of: =, =, >, >. <. s Example of selection: o branch-name=Perryridge (account) Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.11 Database System Concepts Select Operation Example Relation r A B C D o o | | o | | | 1 5 12 23 7 7 3 10 o A=B ^ D > 5 (r) A B C D o | o | 1 23 7 10 Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.12 Database System Concepts Project Operation Notation:
[ A1, A2, , Ak (r) where A 1 , A 2 are attribute names and r is a relation name. The result is defined as the relation of k columns obtained by erasing the columns that are not listed Duplicate rows removed from result, since relations are sets E.g. To eliminate the branch-name attribute of account [ account-number, balance (account)
Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.13 Database System Concepts Project Operation Example Relation r: A B C o o | | 10 20 30 40 1 1 1 2 A C o o | | 1 1 1 2 = A C o | | 1 1 2 [ A,C (r) Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.14 Database System Concepts Cartesian-Product Operation Notation r x s Defined as: r x s = {t q | t e r and q e s} Assume that attributes of r(R) and s(S) are disjoint. (That is, R S = C). If attributes of r(R) and s(S) are not disjoint, then renaming must be used. Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.15 Database System Concepts Cartesian-Product Operation-Example Relations r, s: r x s: A B o | 1 2 A B o o o o | | | | 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 C D o | |
o | |
10 10 20 10 10 10 20 10 E a a b b a a b b C D o | |
10 10 20 10 E a a b b r s Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.16 Database System Concepts Composition of Operations Can build expressions using multiple operations Example: o A=C (r x s) r x s
o A=C (r x s) A B o o o o | | | | 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 C D o | |
o | |
10 10 20 10 10 10 20 10 E a a b b a a b b A B C D E o | | 1 2 2 o | | 10 20 20 a a b Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.17 Database System Concepts Rename Operation Allows us to name, and therefore to refer to, the results of relational-algebra expressions. Allows us to refer to a relation by more than one name. Example:
x (E) returns the expression E under the name X If a relational-algebra expression E has arity n, then
x
(A1, A2, , An) (E) returns the result of expression E under the name X, and with the attributes renamed to A1, A2, ., An.
Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.18 Database System Concepts Banking Example branch (branch-name, branch-city, assets)
borrower (customer-name, loan-number) Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.19 Database System Concepts Example Queries Find all loans of over $1200
Find the loan number for each loan of an amount greater than $1200
o amount > 1200 (loan)
[ loan-number (o amount
> 1200 (loan))
Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.20 Database System Concepts Example Queries Find the names of all customers who have a loan, an account, or both, from the bank Find the names of all customers who have a loan and an account at bank. [ customer-name (borrower) [ customer-name (depositor)
Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.21 Database System Concepts Example Queries Find the names of all customers who have a loan at the Perryridge branch. Find the names of all customers who have a loan at the Perryridge branch but do not have an account at any branch of the bank. [ customer-name (o branch-name = Perryridge
(o borrower.loan-number = loan.loan-number (borrower x loan))) [ customer-name (depositor) [ customer-name (o branch-name=Perryridge
(o borrower.loan-number = loan.loan-number (borrower x loan))) Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.22 Database System Concepts Example Queries Find the names of all customers who have a loan at the Perryridge branch. Query 2 [ customer-name (o loan.loan-number = borrower.loan-number ( (o branch-name = Perryridge (loan)) x borrower))
Query 1 [ customer-name (o branch-name = Perryridge ( o borrower.loan-number = loan.loan-number (borrower x loan)))
Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.23 Database System Concepts Example Queries Find the largest account balance Rename account relation as d The query is:
[ balance (account) - [ account.balance
(o account.balance < d.balance (account x d (account))) Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.24 Database System Concepts Additional Operations We define additional operations that do not add any power to the relational algebra, but that simplify common queries. Natural join Division Assignment Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.25 Database System Concepts Notation: r s Natural-Join Operation Let r and s be relations on schemas R and S respectively. Then, r s is a relation on schema R S obtained as follows: Consider each pair of tuples t r from r and t s from s. If t r and t s have the same value on each of the attributes in R S, add a tuple t to the result, where t has the same value as t r on r t has the same value as t s on s Example: R = (A, B, C, D) S = (E, B, D) Result schema = (A, B, C, D, E) r s is defined as: [ r.A, r.B, r.C, r.D, s.E (o r.B = s.B . r.D = s.D (r x s)) Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.26 Database System Concepts Natural Join Operation Example Relations r, s: A B o |
o o 1 2 4 1 2 C D o
|
| a a b a b B 1 3 1 2 3 D a a a b b E o |
o e r A B o o o o o 1 1 1 1 2 C D o o
| a a a a b E o
o
o s r s Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.27 Database System Concepts Division Operation Suited to queries that include the phrase for all. Let r and s be relations on schemas R and S respectively where R = (A 1 , , A m , B 1 , , B n ) S = (B 1 , , B n ) The result of r s is a relation on schema R S = (A 1 , , A m )
r s = { t | t e [ R-S (r) . u e s ( tu e r ) } r s Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.28 Database System Concepts Division Operation Example Relations r, s: r s: A B o | 1 2 A B o o o |
o o o e e | 1 2 3 1 1 1 3 4 6 1 2 r s Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.29 Database System Concepts Another Division Example A B o o o | |
a a a a a a a a C D o
| a a b a b a b b E 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 Relations r, s: r s: D a b E 1 1 A B o
a a C
r s Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.30 Database System Concepts Extended Relational-Algebra-Operations Generalized Projection Outer Join Aggregate Functions Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.31 Database System Concepts Generalized Projection Extends the projection operation by allowing arithmetic functions to be used in the projection list.
[ F1, F2, , Fn (E) E is any relational-algebra expression Each of F 1 , F 2 , , F n are are arithmetic expressions involving constants and attributes in the schema of E. Given relation credit-info(customer-name, limit, credit-balance), find how much more each person can spend: [ customer-name, limit credit-balance (credit-info) Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.32 Database System Concepts Aggregate Functions and Operations Aggregation function takes a collection of values and returns a single value as a result. avg: average value min: minimum value max: maximum value sum: sum of values count: number of values Aggregate operation in relational algebra
G1, G2, , Gn g F1( A1), F2( A2),, Fn( An) (E) E is any relational-algebra expression G 1 , G 2 , G n is a list of attributes on which to group (can be empty) Each F i is an aggregate function Each A i is an attribute name Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.33 Database System Concepts Aggregate Operation Example Relation r: A B o o | | o | | | C 7 7 3 10 g sum(c)
(r) sum-C 27 Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.34 Database System Concepts Aggregate Operation Example Relation account grouped by branch-name: branch-name g sum(balance) (account) branch-name account-number balance Perryridge Perryridge Brighton Brighton Redwood A-102 A-201 A-217 A-215 A-222 400 900 750 750 700 branch-name balance Perryridge Brighton Redwood 1300 1500 700 Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.35 Database System Concepts Aggregate Functions (Cont.) Result of aggregation does not have a name Can use rename operation to give it a name For convenience, we permit renaming as part of aggregate operation
branch-name g sum(balance) as sum-balance (account) Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.36 Database System Concepts Outer Join An extension of the join operation that avoids loss of information. Computes the join and then adds tuples form one relation that do not match tuples in the other relation to the result of the join. Uses null values: null signifies that the value is unknown or does not exist All comparisons involving null are (roughly speaking) false by definition. Will study precise meaning of comparisons with nulls later Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.37 Database System Concepts Outer Join Example Relation loan Relation borrower customer-name loan-number Jones Smith Hayes L-170 L-230 L-155 3000 4000 1700 loan-number amount L-170 L-230 L-260 branch-name Downtown Redwood Perryridge Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.38 Database System Concepts Outer Join Example Inner Join
loan Borrower loan-number amount L-170 L-230 3000 4000 customer-name Jones Smith branch-name Downtown Redwood Jones Smith null loan-number amount L-170 L-230 L-260 3000 4000 1700 customer-name branch-name Downtown Redwood Perryridge Left Outer Join loan Borrower Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.39 Database System Concepts Outer Join Example Right Outer Join loan borrower loan borrower Full Outer Join loan-number amount L-170 L-230 L-155 3000 4000 null customer-name Jones Smith Hayes branch-name Downtown Redwood null loan-number amount L-170 L-230 L-260 L-155 3000 4000 1700 null customer-name Jones Smith null Hayes branch-name Downtown Redwood Perryridge null Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.40 Database System Concepts Null Values It is possible for tuples to have a null value, denoted by null, for some of their attributes null signifies an unknown value or that a value does not exist. The result of any arithmetic expression involving null is null. Aggregate functions simply ignore null values Is an arbitrary decision. Could have returned null as result instead. We follow the semantics of SQL in its handling of null values For duplicate elimination and grouping, null is treated like any other value, and two nulls are assumed to be the same Alternative: assume each null is different from each other Both are arbitrary decisions, so we simply follow SQL Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.41 Database System Concepts Null Values Comparisons with null values return the special truth value unknown If false was used instead of unknown, then not (A < 5) would not be equivalent to A >= 5 Three-valued logic using the truth value unknown: OR: (unknown or true) = true, (unknown or false) = unknown (unknown or unknown) = unknown AND: (true and unknown) = unknown, (false and unknown) = false, (unknown and unknown) = unknown NOT: (not unknown) = unknown In SQL P is unknown evaluates to true if predicate P evaluates to unknown Result of select predicate is treated as false if it evaluates to unknown Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.42 Database System Concepts Result of o branch-name = Perryridge (loan) Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.43 Database System Concepts Loan Number and the Amount of the Loan Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.44 Database System Concepts Names of All Customers Who Have Either a Loan or an Account Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.45 Database System Concepts Customers With An Account But No Loan Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.46 Database System Concepts Result of borrower loan Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.47 Database System Concepts Result of o branch-name = Perryridge (borrower loan) Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.48 Database System Concepts Result of H customer-name
Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.49 Database System Concepts Result of the Subexpression Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.50 Database System Concepts Largest Account Balance in the Bank Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.51 Database System Concepts Customers Who Live on the Same Street and In the Same City as Smith Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.52 Database System Concepts Customers With Both an Account and a Loan at the Bank Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.53 Database System Concepts Result of H customer-name, loan-number, amount (borrower loan) Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.54 Database System Concepts Result of H branch-name (o customer-city = Harrison (customer account depositor)) Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.55 Database System Concepts Result of H branch-name (o branch-city = Brooklyn (branch))
Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.56 Database System Concepts Result of H customer-name, branch-name (depositor account) Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.57 Database System Concepts The credit-info Relation Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.58 Database System Concepts Result of H customer-name, (limit credit-balance) as credit-available (credit-info). Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.59 Database System Concepts The pt-works Relation Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.60 Database System Concepts The pt-works Relation After Grouping Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.61 Database System Concepts Result of branch-name
sum(salary) (pt-works) Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.62 Database System Concepts Result of branch-name
sum salary, max(salary) as max-salary (pt-works) Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.63 Database System Concepts The employee and ft-works Relations Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.64 Database System Concepts The Result of employee ft-works Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.65 Database System Concepts The Result of employee ft-works Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.66 Database System Concepts Result of employee ft-works Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.67 Database System Concepts Result of employee ft-works Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.68 Database System Concepts Tuples Inserted Into loan and borrower Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.69 Database System Concepts Names of All Customers Who Have a Loan at the Perryridge Branch Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.70 Database System Concepts The branch Relation Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.71 Database System Concepts The loan Relation Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.72 Database System Concepts The borrower Relation