Faculty of Science Geology Department

Applied sedimentology
Dr. Eng. Geo. Hesham A.H. Lecture No. 6

Sedimentary basin analysis

* Sedimentary basin analysis is a geologic method by which the history of a sedimentary basin is revealed, by analyzing the sediment fill itself. Aspects of the sediment, namely its composition, primary structures, and internal architecture, can be synthesized into a history of the basin fill. Such a synthesis can reveal how the basin formed, how the sediment fill was transported or precipitated, and reveal sources of the sediment fill. From such syntheses models can be developed to explain broad basin formation mechanisms. Examples of such basinal environments include backarc, forearc, passive margin, epicontinental, and extentional basins.

* Sedimentary basin analysis is largely conducted by two types of geologists who have slightly different goals and approaches. * The petroleum geologist, whose the ultimate goal is to determine the possible presence and extent of hydrocarbons and hydrocarbon-bearing rocks in a basin, and the academic geologist, who may be concerned with any or all facets of a basin's evolution. * Petroleum industry basin analysis is often conducted on subterrannean basins through the use of reflection seismology and data from well logging. Academic geologists study subterranean basins as well as those basins which have been exhumed and dissected by subsequent tectonic events.

* The academics sometimes use petroleum industry techniques, but in many cases they are able to study rocks at the surface. * Techniques used to study surficial sedimentary rocks include: measuring stratigraphic sections, identifying sedimentary depositional environments and constructing a geologic map.

Petroleum industry basin analysis

1- Reflection seismology 2- Well logging 1- Reflection seismomlgy Reflection seismology (or seismic reflection) is a method of exploration geophysics that uses the principles of seismology to estimate the properties of the Earth's subsurface from reflected seismic waves. The method requires a controlled seismic source of energy, such as dynamite or a specialized air gun. By noting the time it takes for a reflection to arrive at a receiver, it is possible to estimate the depth of the feature that generated the reflection.

* Applications: Reflection seismology is extensively used in exploration for hydrocarbons (i.e., petroleum , natural gas) and other resources as coal, ores and minerals, geothermal. Reflection seismology is also used for basic research into the nature and origin of the rocks making up the Earth's crust. Reflection Seismology is also used in shallow application for engineering, groundwater and environmental surveying. A method similar to reflection seismology which uses electromagnetic instead of elastic waves is known as Ground-penetrating radar or GPR. GPR is widely used for mapping shallow subsurface (up to a few meters deep).

* Hydrocarbon exploration: Reflection seismology, or 'seismic' as it is more commonly referred to by the oil industry, is used to map the subsurface structure of rock formations. Seismic technology is used by geologists and geophysicists who interpret the data to map structural traps that could potentially contain hydrocarbons. Seismic exploration is the primary method of exploring for hydrocarbon deposits, on land, under the sea and in the transition zone (the interface area between the sea and land).

* Outline of the method: Seismic waves are a form of elastic wave that travel in the Earth. Any medium that can support wave propagation may be described as having an impedance. The seismic (or acoustic) impedance Z is defined by the equation
Z=V

where V is the seismic wave velocity and (Greek rho) is the density of the rock. When a seismic wave encounters a boundary between two different materials with different impedances, some of the energy of the wave will be reflected off the boundary, while some of it will be transmitted through the boundary.

* Reflection experiments: A reflection experiment is carried out by initiating a seismic source (such as a dynamite explosion) and recording the reflected waves using one or more seismometers. On land, the typical seismometer used in a reflection experiment is a small, portable instrument known as a geophone, which converts ground motion into an analog electrical signal. In water, hydrophones, which convert pressure changes into electrical signals, are used. As the seismometers detect the arrival of the seismic waves, the signals are converted to digital form and recorded; early systems recorded the analog signals directly onto magnetic tape, photographic fil, or paper. The signals may then be displayed by a computer as seismograms for interpretation by a seismologist.

* Interpretation of reflections:
The time it takes for a reflection from a particular boundary to arrive at the geophone is called the travel time. If the seismic wave velocity in the rock is known, then the travel time may be used to estimate the depth to the reflector. For a simple vertically traveling wave, the travel time t from the surface to the reflector and back is given by the formula t

= 2d/v

where d is the depth of the reflector and V is the wave velocity in the rock. A series of apparently related reflections on several seismograms is often referred to as a reflection event. By correlating reflection events, a seismologist is able create an estimated cross-section of the geologic structure that generated the reflections.

2- Well logging * Well logging is a technique used in the oil and gas industry for recording rock and fluid properties to find hydrocarbon zones in the geological formations within the Earth's crust. A logging procedure consists of lowering a 'logging tool' on the end of a wireline into an oil well (or hole) to measure the rock and fluid properties of the formation. An interpretation of these measurements is then made to locate and quantify potential depth zones containing oil and gas (hydrocarbons). Logging tools developed over the years measure the electrical, acoustic, radioactive, electromagnetic, and other properties of the rocks and their contained fluids. Depths from 300 m to 8000 m.

* Wireline and "While Drilling" well logging: * Logging measurement types:

The prime target of the logging measurment is the measurement of various geophysical properties of the subsurface rock formations. Of particular interest are porosity, permeability, and fluid content. Porosity is the proportion of fluid-filled space found within the rock. It is this space that contains the oil and gas. Permeability is the ability of fluids to flow through the rock. The higher the porosity, the higher the possible oil and gas content of a rock reservoir. The higher the permeability, the easier for the oil and gas to flow toward the wellbore. Logging tools provide measurements that allow for the mathematical interpretation of these quantities.

* Mud logging: Another logging technique used is known as 'Mud-Logging'. A Wellsite Geologist (usually called a "Mudlogger" or "Mudlogging Field Geologist") works to describe cuttings, monitor formation gas and general drilling operations while drilling is in progress.

Techniques used to study surficial sedimentary rocks

1- measuring stratigraphic sections, 2- identifying sedimentary depositional environments , 3- and constructing a geologic map.

* sedimentary depositional environment describes the combination of physical, chemical and biological processes associated with the deposition of a particular type of sediment and, therefore, the rock types that will be formed after lithification, if the sediment is preserved in the rock record. * Recognition of depositional environments in ancient sediments: Depositional environments in ancient sediments are recognised using a combination of sedimentary facies, facies associations, sedimentary structures and fossils, particularly trace fossil assemblages, as they indicate the environment in which they lived.