Ferrous Alloys Stainless Steels.

U.P.Madangeri SO-E(NP) PIPING SECTION

A Cornucopia of Stainless Steels.

Stainless steels are iron-based alloys. There are many available grades of stainless steel, with widely varying compositions. Some natural questions arise:
Why are there so many? Why is a steel with 17% chromium a ferritic steel, but one with 18% chromium (and 8% nickel) an austenitic steel?

What are the differences between them all?

Why is Stainless Steel Stainless?

Stainless steels are stainless because of passivation.
Corrosion Rate (mm/year) 0.2

0.1

5 % Chromium

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Stainless Steels. Passivity.

Passivity is due to a selfrepairing oxide film.
A compact, continuous film requires ~ 11wt% chromium. Passivity increases with chromium content up to ~17wt% chromium. Most stainless steels contain 17-18wt% chromium.

Corrosion resistance depends on maintainance of the passive film. This is optimised for different environments by alloying with other elements.
e.g. Ni, Mo, N, Cu....

The Stainless Steel Family.

Stainless steels can be divided into five families.
Ferritic. Austenitic. Martensitic. Martensitic-Austenitic. Ferritic-Austenitic.

These families are based on the crystal phases of iron.

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The Crystal Phases of Iron.

Metals are crystalline

Iron can be stable as three important crystal phases.

Ferrite. Austenite. Martensite.

Their relative stability depends on temperature and chemical composition.

Ferrite.
Ferrite has a body-centred cubic crystal structure.

Austenite.
Austenite has a face centred cubic crystal structure.

Martensite.
Martensite has a body centred cubic structure, although this can be distorted by carbon.

Phase Transformations in Steels.

Ferrite Austenite

Martensite

Pure iron is stable as:

austenite above 914C ferrite below 914C. martensite or ferrite below 550C

These transformation mechanisms compete.

The austenite-ferrite phase transformation occurs by diffusional rearrangement of atoms. The austenite-martensite phase transformation occurs by non-diffusional rearrangement of atoms.
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Alloying in Steels.
Temp.

Different alloying elements can :

increase austenite stability to lower temperatures. encourage martensite formation by slowing down the ferrite transformation.

Austenite

Effect of Alloying

Ferrite
Unstable Austenite

Martensite
Time
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Alloying in Stainless Steels.

Stainless steels are alloyed to control both microstructure and corrosion resistance. Alloying elements can be austenite or ferrite stabilisers. The stable phase or phases depends on the balance of alloying elements.
The microstructure can be predicted using a Schaeffler-Delong diagram. Heat treatment may also affect the microstructure.
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The Schaeffler-Delong Diagram.

904
Nickel Equivalent Martensitic-Austenitic

304 410
Martensitic

316

Austenitic Ferritic-Austenitic

2507

2304
430
Ferritic

2205

Chromium Equivalent
Chromium Equivalent = %Cr + 1.5%Si + %Mo Nickel Equivalent = %Ni + 30(%C + %N) + 0.5(%Mn + %Cu + %Co)
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Why Are These Phases Important?

Ferrite, austenite and martensite have different properties due to their different crystal structures.
For example:
ferromagnetism. thermal expansion. thermal conductivity. resistivity. mechanical properties.

Strength, Ductility and Toughness.

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Stainless Steels. Strength and Ductility.

Martensitic 1000 Stress (MPa) Martensitic-Austenitic Ferritic-Austenitic

750
500 250

Ferritic

Austenitic

10

20

30 40 Strain (%)

50

60
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Strength and Ductility.

Strength can be increased by:
refinement of the microstructure. work hardening (cold work). precipitation. alloying.

Strengthening generally reduces ductility.

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 Toughness depends on temperature.

Austenitic Impact Energy

Stainless Steels. Toughness.

Ferritic-Austenitic

Ferritic

Martensitic

-200

-100 0 Temperature (C)

100
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Stainless Steels. Toughness.

The body centred crystal structure fails by brittle cleavage at low temperatures. Austenite is not brittle at low temperatures. Brittle cleavage is encouraged by high strength. Strengthening generally reduces toughness.
microstructure refinement increases both strength and toughness.
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Precipitation.
Stainless steels are unstable at high temperatures.

Carbides and Nitrides (550C - 800C).

Cool quickly, reduce all phases. C & N or stabilise reduces corrosion resistance and toughness. with Ti

Intermetallics (700C - 900C).

ferrite and austenite (>17% Cr & Mo). reduces corrosion resistance and toughness.
Cool quickly

475C Embrittlement (350C - 550C).

ferrite and martensite (>15% Cr). reduces toughness. occurs relatively slowly.

Avoid use at these temperatures

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Applications of Stainless Steels.

Alloying
Microstructure

Corrosion Resistance

Cost

Mechanical Properties

Applications
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Ferritic Stainless Steel.

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Typically: 15-30%Cr, < 0.1%C, < 1%Mo

Ferritic Stainless Steels.

Good Corrosion Resistance.
including chloride environments.

Good Oxidation Resistance. Moderate Toughness. Moderate Strength. Moderate Cost.

Toughness and weldability are improved by reducing C and N.

Moderate Formability.
Poor to Moderate Weldability.
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Ferritic Stainless Steel Applications.

Pipes, heat exchange tubes, valves and tanks.
Food, chemical and paper industries.

Chloride environments.
High temperature sulphur environments.

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Martensitic Stainless Steel.

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Typically: 12-17%Cr, 0.1-1%C

Martensitic Stainless Steels.

High Strength. Moderate Corrosion Resistance. Moderate Oxidation Resistance. Moderate Toughness. Martensite-Austenite steels have higher toughness, improved Moderate Cost. weldability and higher cost. Moderate Formability. Poor to Moderate Weldability.
Increasing the carbon content increases strength but reduces toughness, formability and weldability.

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Martensitic Stainless Steel Applications.

Martensitic Stainless Steels
0.1%C
chemical plant, turbine blades, compressors and discs.

0.3%C
cutlery, gears, bearings, needle valves.

0.6%C
razor blades.

1%C

Martensitic-Austenitic Stainless Steels have similar applications demanding higher toughness.

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surgical instruments, high temperature bearings.

Austenitic Stainless Steel.

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Typically: 18%Cr, >8%Ni, <0.1%C

Austenitic Stainless Steels.

Excellent Corrosion Resistance.
except chloride environments

Good Oxidation Resistance. Low Carbon or addition of Titanium High Toughness. to avoid sensitisation Low to Moderate Strength. Good Formability. Molybdenum improves corrosion resistance, but requires higher Good Weldability. Nickel to stabilise austenite. High Cost.
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Austenitic Stainless Steel Applications.

Very widely used.
pipes, heat exchangers, tanks for food, chemical, pharmaceutical, offshore and paper industries.

Higher alloy steels used in more aggressive environments.

Good creep resistance and oxidation resistance at high temperatures. Good toughness at cryogenic temperatures. Non-magnetic.
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Duplex Stainless Steels.

Ferrite Austenite

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Ferritic-Austenitic (Duplex) Stainless Steels.

Typically: 22%Cr, 5%Ni, 0.03%C, 0.08%N

Excellent Corrosion Resistance.

including chloride environments

High Toughness. Moderate to High Strength. Good Formability. Good Weldability. High Cost.

Strength approximately twice that of austenitic steels with comparable corrosion resistance Higher alloy, high nitrogen grades are being introduced.

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Duplex Stainless Steel Applications.

High strength substitute for austenitic steels.
high strength reduces weight and cost.

Piping, tanks, vessels in chloride environments.

chemical, oil, gas, paper industries.

Structural components requiring corrosion fatigue resistance.

suction rollers in paper industry. seawater pumps and impellers in offshore industry.
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Stainless Steels. Stainless Steels are quite simple (in principle!) Summary.
Mechanical properties depend on microstructure. Microstructure depends on alloying. Can I have a strong, tough, corrosion resistant and cheap stainless steel?
Maybe - it depends on the environment.
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Why are there so many steels?

Due to optimisation of corrosion resistance for particular environments while maintaining the desired microstructure.