How power is delivered to you???

-Only For Internal Circulation- intanshafinaz-July 2010

 At most power plants electrical power is generated at 12,000 to 15,000 volts. (Malaysia =11000 Volts) From the generator it is taken to a transmission substation on the plant site where a power transformer is used to step the voltage up to a transmission voltage level somewhere between 69,000 and 765,000 volts.

 This high voltage electrical power is then transported from the power plant substation to other transmission and distribution substations through the transmission system.

Transmission substation

 These extremely high voltages used on the transmission system allow for a greater amount of power to be transported across the system with less electrical line losses and greater efficiency.

Steel Transmission Towers

 These transmission lines are supported by either steel towers or wood poles, primarily dependent upon the level of voltage of the transmission line.
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Typical Electrical Power Grid

6

PRINCIPLES OF POWER SYSTEMS.

From generating station (11 kV) 11/132 kV transformer Primary transmission (VHV & HV transmission lines)
132 / 33 kV transformer Secondary transmission (LV transmission lines)

TRANSMISSION
33 / 3.3 kV (or 11 kV) transformer

Primary distribution
(HV transmission lines)

3.3 kV / 415 V transformer

DISTRIBUTION

Secondary distribution (LV transmission lines) Utilization equipment

One-line diagram of a typical electrical power generation, transmission, and distribution system.

DISTRIBUTION

 The electrical power is carried by the transmission system to a number of power or distribution substations where the electrical power is stepped down.
Typical Power Distribution System

 Distribution (Power) Substation

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Single Phase Distribution Transformer

Three Phase Distribution Transformer Bank 11

DISTRIBUTION ARRANGEMENTS.
1. Radial distribution systems. 2. Parallel distribution systems. 3. Loop distribution systems. 4. Simple network distribution systems.

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1. Radial distribution systems.

Dipasang ke Pengubah Penurun
Pengubah

(P.B)
JANAKUASA

P.B

P.B

Sistem jejari

A radial feeder connects between a source and a load point, and it may supply one or more additional load points between the two. Each load point can be supplied from one direction only. Radial feeders are most widely used (penduduk kepadatan kurang) because the circuits are simple, easy to protect, and low in cost.
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2. Parallel distribution systems.

Dipasang ke Pengubah Penurun

Pengubah

(P.B)
JANAKUASA

P.B

P.B

Parallel feeders connect the source and a load or load center and provide the capability of supplying power to the load through one or any number of the parallel feeders. Parallel feeders provide for maintenance of feeders (without interrupting service to loads) and quick restoration of service when one of the feeders fails.

Sistem selari

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3. Loop distribution systems.

A loop feeder has its ends connected to a source (usually a single source), but its main function is to supply two or more load points in between. Each load point can be supplied from either direction; so it is possible to remove any section of the loop from service without causing an outage at other load points. The operation is very similar to that of two radial feeders.

Dipasang ke Pengubah Penurun

Pengubah (P.B)

P.B

P.B

JANAKUASA

Pengubah Peninggi

P.B

Pengubah Peninggi (Sulur)

Sistem gelang

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4. Simple network distribution systems.

The advantages is the same of using loop feeder and bustie feeder.
P.B P.B

Advantages of bus-tie feeder: The main function of a tie feeder is to connect two sources. It may connect two substation buses in parallel to provide service continuity for the load supplied from each bus.

JANAKUASA

P.B

P.B

Sistem rangkaian mudah

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Radial vs Loop Distribution System

1. Kos 2. Kesesuaian bekalan

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Kos
Jika melihat kepada kos pemasang sistem penghantaran di antara jejari dan gelang, tidak dapat dinafikan bahawa sistem gelang adalah lebih mahal berbanding sistem jejari. Ini kerana pemasangan menggunakan sistem ini adalah lebih kompleks, kerana banyak menggunakan penyuap dengan yang demikian penggunaan perkakasuis juga turut bertambah. Pertambahan kepada penggunaan perkakasuis dalam sistem ini menyebabkan kos permulaannya adalah banyak. Sebaliknya sistem jejarian yang tidak kompleks dari segi pemasangannya maka penggunaan penyuap dan seterusnya perkakasuis juga adalah dalam jumlah yang kecil. Di samping itu ia merupakan kaedah sistem penghantaran yang mudah dibina dan diselenggarakan.
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Kesesuaian Bekalan
Jika melihat kepada kesesuaian bekalan bagi kedua-dua sistem iaitu jejari dan gelang, tidak dinafikan terdapat berbezaan di antara keduanya. Bagi sistem penyuap jejarian ia sesuai bagi kawasan atau pengguna yang memerlukan beban yang kecil seperti perkampungan atau pekan. Ia tidak sesuai digunakan pada kawasan yang memerlukan beban yang tinggi ini kerana akan menyebabkan penggunaan kabel yang lebih besar bagi mengelakkan kuasa lesapan. Sistem penyuap gelang sesuai bagi kawasan pusat beban seperti kawasan bandar-bandar dan sebaginya. Kuasa lesapan yang wujud adalah kurang berbanding dengan sistem jejari.
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20

High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) vs High Voltage Alternating Current (HVAC)

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Fill up the table:

Item
Conductors size

HVDC
Smaller 2.8 times

HVAC
Bigger

Description
HVDC needs fewer conductor as there is no need support multiple phases.

Insulation Skin effect

Thick No yes Also thinner conductors can be used since HVDC does not suffer from the skin effect. The HVDC system may have about half the loss per unit length of high voltage A.C. system carrying the same amount of power In HVDC, no cyclic change in current flow.

Corona

Less effected

More affected

Current/ voltage stabilizer

No

Yes

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Item
Voltage regulation

HVDC
Good

HVAC
poor

Description
DC current is more effective for long distance and high voltage transmission because it result in less energy lost in transmission.

Voltage changing

Cant

Can

The big advantages that A.C provides for power grid the fact that its relatively easy to change the voltage of the power using the device called a transformer. The cost for a 2000MW 50KV bipole HVDC link (exclude wayleaving, on-shore reinforcement work, engineering, insurance etc.. its cost 110M for converter station, and cable+installation its cost 1M/km HVDC circuit breakers are difficult to build because some mechanism must be included in the circuit breaker to force current to zero.

Cost (substation)

Expensive

Cheap

Current/ voltage termination

More complex

Easy

Rectifying and inverting

Yes

No

The required static inverters are expensive and have limited overload capacity.

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Underground transmission

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UNDERGROUND CABLES
Cables used in underground conduits must be suitable for use in wet areas, and protected against abrasion during installation.

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Electric power can also be transmitted by underground power cables instead of overhead power lines. They can assist the transmission of power across:

Densely populated urban areas Areas where land is unavailable or planning consent is difficult Rivers and other natural obstacles Land with outstanding natural or environmental heritage Areas of significant or prestigious infrastructural development Land whose value must be maintained for future urban expansion and rural development
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Some other advantages of underground power cables:

Less subject to damage from severe weather conditions (mainly wind and freezing) Greatly reduced emission, into the surrounding area, of electromagnetic fields (EMF). All electric currents generate EMF, but the shielding provided by the earth surrounding underground cables restricts their range and power. Underground cables need a narrower surrounding strip of about 1- 10 meters to install, whereas an overhead line requires a surrounding strip of about 20- 200 meters wide to be kept permanently clear for safety, maintenance and repair.
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Some disadvantages of underground power cables:

Undergrounding is more expensive, since the cost of burying cables at transmission voltages is several times greater than overhead power lines, and the life-cycle cost of an underground power cable is two to four times the cost of an overhead power line. According to the British Stakeholder Advisory Group on ELF EMFs, the cost is around GBP 10M/km, compared to GBP 0.5-1M/km for overhead lines. This is mainly due to the limit of the physical properties of the insulation placed during installation, keeping the runs to hundreds of feet between splices, which are most commonly placed in manholes or splice-boxes for repairs. Whereas finding and repairing overhead wire breaks can be accomplished in hours, underground repairs can take days or weeks, and for this reason redundant lines are run. Operations are more difficult since the high reactive power of underground cables produces large charging currents and so makes voltage control more difficult.
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 The advantages can in some cases outweigh the disadvantages of the higher investment cost, and more expensive maintenance and management. Most high-voltage underground cables for power transmission that are currently sold on the market are insulated by a sheath of cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE). Some cable may have a lead jacket in conjunction with XLPE insulation to allow for fiber optics to be seamlessly integrated within the cable.
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 Before 1960, underground power cables were insulated with oil and paper and ran in a rigid steel pipe, or a semi-rigid aluminum or lead jacket or sheath. The oil was kept under pressure to prevent formation of voids that would allow partial discharges within the cable insulation. There are still many of these oil-and-paper insulated cables in use worldwide. Between 1960 and 1990, polymers became more widely used at distribution voltages, mostly EPDM (ethylene propylene diene Mclass); however, their relative unreliability - particularly early XLPE resulted in a slow uptake at transmission voltages. While cables of 330kV are commonly constructed using XLPE, this has occurred only in recent years.

http://www.hitechcontrols.com/cables/medium_voltage_power/xlpe-introduction/introduction_xlpe_insulation.html#shielding

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http://tdworld.com/underground_transmission_distribution/power_hv_transmission_goes/

HV Transmission Goes Underground Apr 1, 2006 12:00 PM by Vito Longo, Technology Editor

IT IS EITHER AGE OR SOME INTRACTABLE FEATURE OF MODERNITY:

Things that used to be crystal clear are now more than just a bit murky. The old overhead versus underground transmission line comparison used to be a no-brainer. Two decades ago, underground lines cost 20 times or more than overhead lines. Unless you were in a large metropolitan area with no other realistic option, promoting underground transmission was not a career-enhancing decision. It also could lead to protracted bouts of loneliness; no one would talk to you. A decade ago, the price multiplier had dropped to 10 times, and it was pretty much the same story. Today, there are significant lengths of 230-kV underground transmission operating in the United States, and the number of 345-kV underground transmission projects is exploding. What brought about this change?

UNDERGROUND: PIPES TO PLASTIC Paper is a pretty fundamental insulator. It is an even better insulator when impregnated with oil. For a long time, this was the foundation of underground cables at all voltages. Since the 1920s, pipe-type fluid-filled cables were the option of choice if one had to use underground cables. As voltages increased, the size of the cables and pipes increased, too. Eventually, the oil in the pipe was circulated to improve the heat transfer and capacity ratings of systems. But, in the second half of the 1900s, the industry discovered that the insulating oil had environmental and health impacts. For this reason, new projects migrated away from using this type of underground cable. Meanwhile, the plastics industry was coming of age. High-molecular-weight polyethylene was first used for cable insulation in the 1960s. Then cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE), with its higher thermal tolerance, came into use. There were plenty of bumps in the road along the way. Early cables based on polyethylene insulation had failures as manufacturing processes evolved, quality-control procedures improved and installation practices matured. This stifled product acceptance for a time. The U.S. industry has been cautious in adopting this and other new technologies. The progression for XLPE cables has been to install shorter unspliced lengths and progress to longer installations. Today, the solid dielectric cable industry provides a mature product that has seen installations up to 500 kV in China and Japan.

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Keperluan Utama Binaan Kabel Bawah Tanah

Pembinaan kabel bawah tanah adalah lebih kompleks berbanding dengan kabel talian atas. kabel bawah tanah mempunyai sekurang-kurangnya enam bahagian atau lebih dengan bahan binaan yang berlainan. Pembinaan ini dilakukan sedemikian bagi menjamin ketahanan dan keselamatan kabel membawa voltan tinggi dan juga daripada keadaan yang terdapat dalam tanah (tekanan, air dan sebagainya). Oleh yang demikian bagi mempastikan kabel bawah tanah yang direkabentuk ini boleh digunakan bagi penghantaran dan pengagihan tenaga elektrik melalui bawah tanah, beberapa kerperluan utama pembinaan mesti dipatuhi, di antaranya;

i).Pengalir almunium/tembaga yang digunakan mesti mempunyai saiz yang berpatutan supaya arus boleh mengalir tanpa berlakunya kepanasan yang berlebihan. Susutan voltan pada kabel tidak boleh melebihi satu-satu had yang telah ditetapkan.
ii).Kabel tersebut mesti mempunyai penebatan yang sempurna dan tebal penebat yang boleh menggelakkan dari terjadi sesuatu kemalangan dan dapat menahan tegasan dielektrik yang tinggi. iii).Kabel mesti diberi perlindungan mekanikal supaya dapat menahan kerosakan dari penggunaan yang kasar. iv).Kabel mesti mempunyai kestabilan kimia dan fizikal pada keseluruhannya. v).Kemudahan untuk menggelakkan kemasukan air kedalam kabel perlu diambilkira 32

Skematik kabel bawah tanah

4. Pelapisan 5. Pemerisaian 6. Serving 1. Teras

3. Salutan Logam 2. Penebat

Skematik kabel bawah tanah

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XPLE

(contoh kabel bawah tanah)

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XPLE -REQUIREMENTS
1. Cores Cables shall be single core or three core as specified in the data sheet. 2. Dielectric (insulation) The dielectric shall comprise a solid extrusion of crosslinked polyethylene (XLPE) 3. Core screen The dielectric screen shall comprise a semi-conducting material in intimate contact with the core dielectric and shall not be fully bonded but be freely strippable..
35

4. Bedding

The bedding and filler material if used, shall be fully compatible with the other materials in the cable.
5. Armouring

Armouring shall be single galvanised steel single wire armouring for three core cables and hard-drawn single aluminium wire armouring for single core cables where specified. 6. Outer sheath The outer sheath shall be an extruded polymeric of either type S2 to SABS 1411 Part 2 for PVC, FR PVC or LH FR PVC sheath or type HFS2 to SABS 1411 Part 5 for NH LS FR, as selected in the data sheet.
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Crosslinked Polyethylene XLPE.

Polymer Type Thermoplastic Advantages Higher modulus and strength at elevated temperatures. Reduced creep compared to HDPE. Reduced sensitivity to stress cracking. Disadvantages Irradiation cross-linking requires expensive plant. Peroxide cross-linking can affect electrical properties. Applications Shrink-wrap film, heat-shrinkable tubing, pipe for domestic heating systems, rotationally moulded tanks.
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Underground transmission
Menanam Kabel Bawah Tanah Secara Terus/

Direct Burial

Menanam Kabel Bawah Tanah dalam Saluran (ducts) dan Paip

/ Duct and manhole

/Liquid-Filled

Menanam Kabel Bawah Tanah menggunaka Sistem Pejal

Pipe-Type Cables

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Direct burial
Cables may be buried directly in the ground where permitted by codes and only in areas that are rarely disturbed. The cables used must be suitable for this purpose, that is, resistant to moisture, crushing, soil contaminants, and insect and rodent damage. While direct-buried cable cannot be readily added to or maintained, the current carrying capacity is usually greater than that of cables in ducts. Buried cable must have selected backfill. It must be used only where the chance of disturbance is unlikely. The cable must be suitably protected, however, if used where the chance of disturbance is more likely to occur. Relatively recent advances in the design and operating characteristics of cable fault location equipment and subsequent repair methods and material have diminished the maintenance problem.

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 Direct-buried cable Cross-section of (DBC) is a kind of direct buried cable communications or transmissions cable which is especially designed to be buried under the ground without any kind of extra covering, sheathing, or piping to protect it
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Description
Most direct-buried cable is built to specific tolerances to heat, moisture, conductivity, and soil acidity. Unlike standard telecommunications and power cables, which have only a thin layer of insulation and a waterproof outer cover, DBC consists of multiple layers of heavy metallic-banded sheathing, reinforced by heavy rubber covers, shock absorbing gel, wrapped thread-fortified waterproof tape, and stiffened by a heavy metal core.
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Benefits
Most cable of this kind is coaxial or bundled fiber-optic in nature. Direct-buried cable is cheaper and easier to lay than other kinds of cable that require protection from the earth. However, DBC is also easily cut during digging or other excavations. As a result, most direct-buried cable is found on side roads, not main thoroughfares. DBC is preferable in some areas since it is more resistant to being the focus of lightning discharges. Power cabling Some power cabling is also direct-buried. This kind of cabling must follow strict regulatory procedures regarding installation and backfilling. This is usually used in areas where overhead cabling is impractical or dangerous.

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i). Menanam Kabel Bawah Tanah Secara Terus

Paras Permukaan Tanah Skala : Semua ukuran dalam sm
15.24

7.62 22.86

Tanah Asal Kabel

Pasir
15.24

Cara penanaman kabel bawah tanah bervoltan tinggi

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Paras Permukaan Tanah Skala : Semua ukuran dalam sm

15.24

7.62 10.16

Tanah Asal

Kabel
Pasir

15.24 4.5

Cara penanaman kabel bawah tanah bervoltan rendah

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45

Duct and manhole

46

 Underground ducts are used where it is necessary to provide a high degree of safety and mechanical protection, or where above-ground conductors would be unattractive.

47

ii). Menanam Kabel Bawah Tanah dalam Saluran (ducts) dan Paip
Penanaman kabel bawah tanah dalam saluran bagi sistem pengagihan biasanya dilakukan dikawasan-kawasan seperti; i). Lintasan jalanraya. ii). Lintasan jalan keretapi. iii). Lintasan longkang monsoon (Monsoon Drain Crossing) iv). Lintasan jambatan Jenis-jenis saluran dan paip yang digunakan adalah seperti berikut; i). Paip keluli (terutama digunakan pada lintasan jalan keretapi, longkang monsoon dan jambatan) ii). Saluran jenis tanah liat (glaze earthetware ducks). iii). Paip asbestos iv). Paip jenis gentian (picth fibre pipes)

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Paras Permukaan Tanah

Paip jenis tanah liat

Kabel
7.62 sm

Konkrit

7.62 sm

Dalam Tanah

Lebar Trench Peraturan meletakkan salur dan paip jenis tanah liat

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High Pressure Liquid-Filled PipeType Cables

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Menanam Kabel Bawah Tanah menggunaka Sistem Pejal

Cara penanam kabel dengan menggunakan kaedah ini, kabel akan dibaringkan didalam paluh (bekas berbentuk) seperti trench atau sesalur di dalam tanah. Kemudian paluh ini diisi dengan bitumen atau minyak tar dan kemudian ditutup dengan konkrit. Paluh yang digunakan dalam penanaman kabel bawah tanah sebenarnya terdiri daripada besi beracuan, batu, tar dan kayu yang telah dirawat. Kabel yang ditanam dengan cara ini biasanya mempunyai penutup yang licin di samping menyediakan perlindungan mekanikal yang baik. Walaupun demikian menanam kabel dengan cara ini jarang dilakukan, ini kerana ia melibatkan kos yang amat tinggi. Meskipun demikian ianya boleh diatasi dengan kemahiran penyelia melaksanakan kerja pemasangan dan juga bergantung kepada keadan cuaca yang baik. Masalah yang timbul bagi penanaman kabel dengan cara ini, ia memerlukan masa yang lama bagi menyiapkan kerja-kerja penanaman di samping kerja-kerja baik pulih jika berlaku kerosakan pada kabel. Meskipun begitu dengan kaedah ini kabel mendapat perlindungan yang baik daripada tindak balas kimia dan sebagainya.
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High Pressure Liquid-Filled Pipe-Type Cables (HPLF)

For bulk power transmission in liquidfilled pipe-type cables, three single paperinsulated liquidimpregnated cores are arranged in an equilateral configuration inside a buried steel pipe, as shown in Figure 3.

52

 The pipe is filled with insulating liquid, and the cables are designed to operate without individual metallic sheaths while under a nominal hydraulic pressure of about 200 psi. The maximum electrical operating levels, are the same as those of the Self-Contained Liquid-Filled (SCLF) cable.
http://www.ccbda.org/publications/pub21e/21e-Section6.html#Anchor-High-25280

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Underground vs. Overhead Transmission Lines

54

Fill up the table:

Item: Overhead Underground

Keselamatan awam Kos Sebenar : Kos penyelenggaraan : Kebolehsuaian : Keupayaan Voltan Kejatuhan voltan : Penyambungan : Kawasan kerosakan dan pembaikan Gangguan oleh talian perhubungan :
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Underground vs. Overhead Transmission Lines (extra notes)

Can the lines be buried? While it is common for the lower voltage distribution lines to be buried (lines less than 69,000 volts), it is very rare that we would propose to build a transmission line underground. Placing transmission lines underground is a practice generally used only when there is no viable overhead corridor.

There are several factors that affect the decision to place transmission lines underground: 1. Cost 2. Outages and operational issues 3. Environmental impacts
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Cost
The materials and construction methods required for underground transmission lines lead to more costly projects. Generally, burying transmission lines cost 10 times more than the cost to build overhead transmission lines. Because the costs associated with new and existing transmission lines are passed along to retail electric customers in their monthly electric bill, various state commissions that regulate Xcel Energys operating companies determine during their review of projects whether it is prudent to place part or all of a transmission lines project underground. In some instances, transmission lines have been placed underground where there is an entity, such as a city or a developer, willing to pay the additional cost to bury a line. In either case, specific construction measures are necessary for safe and reliable operation of the line.

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Outages and operational issues

Underground lines are less subject to intermittent outages from lightning strikes than overhead lines. However, when an underground transmission line fails or is damaged, the time required to locate and repair the facility can be weeks or months, while overhead transmission lines can be repaired in hours or days.
58

Outages and operational issues

This is largely due to the fact that underground lines are contained in a cable vault or duct. When a fault occurs, that energy also is contained and will cause damage to the vault or duct. With overhead lines, the energy is dissipated into open space around the conductor, minimizing the amount of damage.
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Outages and operational issues

Locating and accessing underground damage also is an issue. While a broken conductor or damaged insulator should be plainly visible on an overhead line, it will not be apparent on the underground circuit. Special equipment must be used to determine the exact location of the cable fault. Then that section needs to be accessed, possibly requiring excavation of the duct bank or cable vault. Underground repairs also can be more complicated, sometimes requiring splices to be installed, which takes more time than pulling and replacing a failed cable.

From an operational perspective, all electric lines produce heat and therefore have a limit on the amount of power they can carry to prevent overheating. Underground lines cannot dissipate heat as well as overhead lines. So, it would be rare that the company would agree to bury major transmission lines on its system, such as our 345 kV and 500 kV lines, because of this limitation and potential operational issues that could affect the overall reliability of our system.

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Environmental impacts
While there is some belief that placing transmission lines underground and out of sight is better for the environment, underground transmission lines cant be simply plowed into the ground. They need to be encased in conduits, which are usually built with concrete. That requires large trenches and bores along the entire route of the line, which is invasive and disruptive especially when there are wetlands and streams that need to be crossed. Access points for the underground line also need to be placed at regular intervals in order to inspect and repair buried cable.

And an access road would be required along the length of the route.
If oil-filled cable is required, there is the potential for oil leaks and the need to have pressure stations along the route.
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Issue

Overhead

Underground

Cost
Outages More frequent Shorter duration Design Environmental

10 times higher than overhead

Less frequent Longer in duration

Standard designs require less engineering time

More time is required to design underground lines

More invasive construction techniques

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Industrial and domestic (residential)

63

In order to provide members electrical power at their required service voltages, distribution transformers are installed along the line at each business, residence and farm. Residential services and most farms require 240 volt single phase service which is provided by a single distribution transformer located on the pole or on a concrete pad at the member location. Some farms, larger businesses and the many irrigation services served by the cooperative require three phase services. These three phase services may be 415 volts. These services are provided by three single phase distribution transformers wired together to form a three phase bank located on the pole adjacent to the service, or by a single three phase transformer located on a concrete pad at the member location.

64

 From the distribution transformer or transformer bank, secondary and/or service conductors are installed to the electrical meter, located either on a metering pole or on the member's house or building. The meter measures all energy used by the member in kilowatt hours (KWH). In the case of three phase services the meter also measures kilowatt (KW) demand which reflects the highest fifteen minute requirement for power. This meter is used by the cooperative to determine the member's electrical requirements as well as for billing purposes. From the meter the member or his electrician installs the service entrance conductors which provide power to the main electrical panel within the house or building from which the member's lighting and power loads are served
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Pengenalan . . .
Sistem pengagihan tenaga elektrik merupakan sebahagian daripada sistem elektrik yang mana menghubungkan pengguna dengan sumber bekalan utama selepas talian penghantaran. Dalam sistem elektrik kuasa pengagihan tenaga elektrik bergantung kepada beban yang terdapat disesebuah kawasan pengguna. Oleh kerana jenis beban yang digunakan oleh pengguna berbeza-beza maka sistem pengagihan tenaga elektrik juga berbeza berdasarkan kepada keupayaan beban. Rangkaian pengagihan boleh dipecahkan kepada dua bahagian iaitu pengagihan utama dan pengagihan pendua. Pengagihan utama biasanya membawa voltan tinggi iaitu 11 kV, 6.6 kV atau 3.3 kV dan bergantung kepada keperluan penggunaan tanaga yang banyak oleh pengguna. Manakala pengagihan pendua membawa hanya voltan rendah iaitu 400 volt ke bawah. Pengagihan voltan biasanya membekalkan tenaga elektrik kepada pengguna domestik, perdagangan, industri dan lain-lain lagi. Sistem pengagihan tenaga elektrik kepada pengguna boleh difahami dengan lebih lanjut dengan melihat bagaimana sistem pengagihan domestik dan industri dilaksanakan.

66

Sistem Pengagihan Domestik

Pengagihan tenaga elektrik kepada pengguna domestik biasanya melibatkan rumahrumah kediaman, rumah pangsa, pangsapuri dan lain-lain lagi. Rumah-rumah kediaman mendapat pengagihan bekalan kuasa melalui sistem satu fasa. Bagi kediaman pangsapuri dan seumpamanya mendapat pengagihan bekalan tenaga elektrik melalui sistem tiga fasa melibatkan voltan 240V dan 415V. Penggunaan sistem tiga fasa bagi pengagihan tenaga elektrik bagi pangsapuri akan memberikan keseimbangan bekalan pada setiap fasa. Beban yang biasa terdapat pada pengguna domestik terdiri daripada lampu, pemanas (air, ruangan dan alat pemasak), radio, televisyen, mesin basuh, penyaman udara dan peti sejuk. Jumlah beban bagi sitem pengagihan domestik dalam sistem kuasa elektrik merupakan jumlah yang terbesar dianggarkan menjangkau sehingga 80 peratus darpada keseluruhan penggunaan tenaga elektrik. Oleh yang demikian jumlah kos pembinaan peralatan bagi sistem pengagihan tenaga elektrik terhadap pengguna domestik adalah besar. Merujuk kepada rajah 3.9 dapat diperhatikan pengagihan tenaga kepada pengguna domestik melalui satu pencawang pengagihan kepada beberapa pengubah yang mempunyai keupayaan KVA tertentu. Pengubah ini digunakan untuk menurun voltan 11 kV kepada 415V sebelum diagihkan kepada pengguna domestik dengan menggunakan sistem talian satu fasa.

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Sistem Pengagihan Industri

Pengagihan tenaga elektrik kepada pengguna industri biasanya melibatkan kilangkilang pembuatan. Kilang-kilang ini mendapat pengagihan bekalan tenaga elektrik melalui sistem tiga fasa dengan sistem pencawangnya tersendiri. Jenis beban yang terdapat dalam kilang biasanya terdiri daripada motor-motor elektrik, panel kawalan dan juga peralatan pembuatan (terdiri daripada mesin-mesin yang direka khas untuk tugas-tugas tertentu). Jumlah beban bagi sitem pengagihan industri boleh mencapai sehingga 25 peratus daripada penggunaan tenaga elektrik secara keseluruhan. Pengagihan tenaga elektrik kepada pengguna industri berbeza dengan pengguna domestik. Bagi setiap industri memerlukan pencawang pengagihannya sendiri tanpa berkongsi dengan mana-mana pengguna lain seperti yang dilakukan terhadap sistem pengagihan domestik. Sistem pengagihan industri yang besar memerlukan voltan 33 kV pada sistem pencawangnya manakala industri kecil memadai dengan voltan 11 kV pada sistem pencawangnya.

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Industrial Customer

Most industries need 2,400 to 4,160 volts to run heavy machinery and usually their own substation or substations to reduce the voltage from the transmission line to the desired level for distribution throughout the plant area. They usually require 3phase lines to power 3-phase motors.
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Commercial Customer

Commercial customers are usually served at distribution voltages, ranging from 14.4 kV to 7.2 kV through a service drop line which leads from a transformer on or near the distribution pole to the customer's end use structure. They may require 3-phase lines to power 3-phase motors.
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Residential Customer

The distribution electricity is reduced to the end use voltage (120/240 volts single phase) via a pole mounted or pad-mounted transformer. Power is delivered to the residential customer through a service drop line which leads from the distribution pole transformer to the customer's structure, for overhead lines, or underground.

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Transportation Customer
Currently the only electric transportation systems are light rail and subway systems. A small distribution substation reduces the local distribution voltage to the transportation system requirements. The overhead lines supply electric power to the transportation system motors and the return current lines are connected to the train tracks.
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The end

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