The Eighteenth Century: An Age of Enlightenment: AP European History

The Eighteenth Century: An Age of Enlightenment
AP European History Chapter 17
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Overview
The Scientific Revolutions natural philosophers effected but a small elite But a group of intellectuals used the discoveries to examine all aspects of life Voltaire
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Voltaire
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Paris was the cultural capital of Europe Parisian women took a lead in bringing together thinkers of many disciplines to cross-talk discoveries and new philosophies
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Marie-Therese de Geoffrin hosted distinguished foreigners, philosophers, and artists

These gatherings stimulated wide-ranging discussions and ideas Ideas generated were so significant that historians refer to the 18th century as the Age of Enlightenment
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Enlightenment included a rejection of traditional Christianity Religious wars and intolerance of 16th and 17th centuries alienated intellectuals
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Intellectuals and scientists of the 17th century were open to new ideas of science. Both saw science as exalting God The 18th century intellectuals saw it differently
Rejected Christian orthodoxy and secularism emerged as dominant mentality in Western mentality ever since
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Reason and materialism were beginning to replace faith and reason Although, there was an outburst of religious sensibility manifested in art and music
Not all artistic and intellectual hearts were captured by secularism

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Montesquieu
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Focus Questions
Who were the leading figures of the Enlightenment, and what were their main contributions?
Diderot
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Focus Questions
In what type of social environment did the philosophes thrive, and what role did women play in that environment?
Rousseau
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Focus Question
What innovations in art, music, and literature occurred in the 18th century?
Wollstonecraft
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Focus Question
How did popular culture differ form high culture in the 18th century?
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Focus Question
How did popular religion differ from institutional religion in the 18th century?
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Critical Thinking Question
What is the relationship between the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment?
Locke
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The Enlightenment
Overview
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Overview
German philosopher Emmanuel Kant defined Enlightenment as mans leaving his self-caused immaturity Kant: Dare to know! Have the courage to use your own intelligence. Emmanuel Kant
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Overview
As laws were discovered regulating nature, then laws could be found to regulate human society Buzz words: reason, natural law, hope, progress
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Overview
Philosophes and scientists thought that if only people could throw off the shackles of old beliefs, particularly religious, the world be a better place
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Overview
If Newton can discover the natural laws of science that govern the universe, the laws of how to govern a society could be discovered as well
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The Paths to Enlightenment

Influenced by 17th century thinkers, what changes occurred with 18th century thinkers that culminated in the Enlightenment?
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The Popularization of Science
Spread of scientific information was not direct from scientist to people.

Books were tough to readwritten by the best brains of the timeand tough to get (no Borders) Much was done through education by popularizers or philosophes themselves
The link to the people of the scientific discoveries the philosophes
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Bernard de Fontenelle, Secretary of the French Royal Academy from 1691 to 1741, wrote books on discoveries Fontenelle possessed vast knowledge of discoveries Bernard de Fontenelle
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Fontenelle was very witty and scientifically wise His book, Plurality of Worlds, two people discussing discoveries

Conversation between lady aristocrat and lover Tell me, she exclaims, about these stars of yours
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Fontenelle showed that science need not be the monopoly of experts, but part of literature He downplayed the religious side of scientists He was a skeptic about religion and portrayed churches as enemies of scientific progress
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A New Skepticism
As scientific discoveries spread, more men and women questioned longheld religious truths and values
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A New Skepticism
Skepticism and secularism was evident in the works of Pierre Bayle (1647-1706)
Attacked religious intolerance, superstition, and dogmatism Compelling people to believe a certain set of religious ideas was wrongas Louis XIV was doing at that time
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Pierre Bayle
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A New Skepticism (cont)
Bayle believed
that individual conscious should determine ones action the existence of many religions would benefit rather than harm a state the Bible should not be exempt from criticism
Pierre Bayle
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A New Skepticism
In Bayles most famous work, Historical and Critical Dictionary, he wrote of King David in a very different way

David was portrayed as a sensual, cruel, treacherous, and evil man The Dictionary attacked traditional religious practices and heroes
One critic of Dictionary called it the Bible of the eighteenth century
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The Impact of Travel Literature
Skepticism about religion and European culture was nourished by travel reports
Traders, missionaries, medical practitioner, and explorersall wrote travel books Geographical discoveries, e.g. Tahiti, New Zealand, and Australia by James Cook Aroused much enthusiasm
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Exotic peoples, such as natives from Tahiti, presented an image of natural man The idea of the noble savage would impact the work of some philosophes
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The literature also demonstrated there were highly developed cultures in other parts of the world
China and Confucian morality were singled out Europeans began to evaluate their culture compared to others
Confucius
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Certainties about European practices gave way to cultural relativism

Accompanied by religious skepticism The Christian perception of God was one of many Every day they see a new religion, new customs, and new rites
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The Legacy of Locke and Newton
The intellectual inspiration for the Enlightenment were Locke and Newton Intellectuals believed that by following Newtons laws of reasoning, they could discover the natural laws that governed politics, economics, justice, religion, and art
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Newton frequently singled out

the greatest and rarest genius that ever rose for the ornament and instruction of the species God said, Let Newton be, and all is light
Philosophes enchanted by Newtons world machine
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John Lockes theory of knowledge especially influenced the philosophes
Wrote, Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) Denied Descates belief in innate ideas
John Locke
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Lock denied Descartes belief in innate ideas. Locke argued that every person was born with a tabula rasa, a blank mind
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Our mind is developed from our environment, not from heredity; from reason, not from faith People molded through experiences they received through their senses from their surrounding world
John Locke
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By changing the environment, peoples and societies can be changed Reason enabled enlightened people to discover natural laws to which all institutions should conform The philosophes were enamored with Locke and Newton. Taken together, their ideas seem to offer the hope of a brave new world built on reason
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The Philosophes and Their Ideas
Philosophes were intellectuals and not all philosophers

Literary people, professors, journalists, statesmen, economists, political scientists, and social reformers Came from the nobility and middle class, some poor
International and cosmopolitan movement Dominated by French culture and Paris considered the capital of the Enlightenment
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Philosophes had different circumstances, but the many common threads

The role of philosophy was the change the world, not just discuss it Reason was scientific method, an appeal to facts and experiences Rational criticism was to be applied to everything, including religion and politics
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Philosophes worked in environment where they were not free to write anything State censors were ever present Seizure of books and imprisonment of authors, publishers and sellers was very possible
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The Philosophes and Their Ideas (cont)
Philosophes found ways around censorship

Pseudonyms, anonymously, or abroad Double meanings, e.g., talk about Persians and mean French Publish secretly or in manuscript form to avoid censors Burned books often made them more popular
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The Philosophes and Their Ideas (cont)
Although bound together by common bonds, philosophes often disagreed

Each succeeding generation became more radical A few people tended to dominate the landscape Three French giants stood out
Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Diderot
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Montesquieu and Political Thought
Charles de Secondat, the Baron de Montesquieu

From French nobility Received a classical education then studied law
His first book, Persian Letters

Two Persians traveling in Paris and criticizing French institutions, especially Catholic Church and French monarchy Much of French Enlightenment: attack on traditional religion, advocating religious toleration, denunciation of slavery, use of reason to liberate humans beings
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Montesquieu and Political Thought (cont)
Montesquieus most famous work, The Spirit of the Laws

Published in 1748 Comparative study of governments in which he attempted to apply the scientific method to the social and political arena to ascertain the natural laws governing the social relationships of human beings
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Montesquieu and Political Thought
The Spirit of the Laws distinguished three basic kinds of governments

Republics, suitable for small states and based on citizen involvement Monarchy, appropriate for the middle-size states and grounded in the ruling classs adherence to law Despotism, apt for large empires and dependent on fear to inspire obedience
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Praised Englands constitution which led to his most lasting contribution to political thought, the importance of checks and balances created through the separation of Powers
England had separate executive, legislative, and judicial powers Limited control of each other Served as greatest freedom and security for a state
He wanted the nobility of France to play and active role in the running of the French government
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Translation of Montesquieus work ensured it was read by American philosophes who incorporated much into the U.S. Constitution
Benjamin Franklin James Madison John Adams Alexander Hamilton Thomas Jefferson
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Voltaire and the Enlightenment
Francois-Marie Arouet known as Voltaire Greatest figure of the Enlightenment Classical education in Jesuit school Hailed as successor to Racine for his tragedy CEdipe and his epic on King IV Well liked by Parisian intellectuals, a quarrel with a nobleman forced him abroad to England for 2 years
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Very impressed with England His Philosophic Letters on the English (1733)
Expressed deep admiration for English Liked freedom of press, political freedom, and religious toleration.there are thirty religions and they live together peacefully and happily Indirectly, he criticized France, especially absolute royalty, lack of religious toleration, and freedom of thought
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Voltaire returned to France but, at this point, had to live near the eastern border for security Lived with his mistress the marquise de Chatelet
An early philosophe, she had published a translation of Newtons Principia The two collaborated about a book on the natural philosophy of Newton
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Eventually settled on magnificent estate in Ferney, in France near the Swiss border
Had become wealthy through writing, investments, and inheritance Had the leisure time to write pamphlets, novels, plays, letters, and histories
He was especially well known for his criticism of traditional religion and strong support of religious toleration
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Used prestige and skills as a polemicist to fight cases of intolerance in France Most famous case: Jean Calas
Accused of murdering his son to stop him from becoming Catholic Tortured to confess, he soon died Voltaire, through his writings, forced a retrial in which Calas was exonerated. His son had committed suicide
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Calas family paid an indemnity and Voltaires appeals for moderation seemed more reasonable He wrote, Treatise of Toleration
Reminded people that religious toleration had created no problems for England or Holland Reminded governments all men are brothers under God
Voltaire, Crush the infamous thing.
Religious intolerance, fanaticism, and superstition

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Accepted Deism
Accepted by most philosophes Built on the Newtonian world machine theory The mechanicGodcreated the universe God had no direct involvement in the world and let it run according to its own natural laws God did not extend grace nor answer prayers Jesus might be a good fellow, as Voltaire called Him but he was not divine as Christianity claimed
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Voltaire said, In the opinion that there is a God, there are difficulties, but in the contrary opinion there are absurdities.
Voltaire
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Diderot and the Encyclopedia
Son of skilled craftsman form eastern France Freelance writermany languages and subjects
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Condemned Christianity as fanatical and unreasonable considered it the worst religion
the most absurd andatrocious in its dogma Diderot
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Most famous work was his Encyclopedia or Classified Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades. Called it, the great work of his life Diderot Diderot
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Diderot and the Encyclopedia (cont)
The purpose of the encyclopedia was to change the general way of thinking
Became a weapon against the old French society Attacked religious superstition and promoted toleration Sought social, legal, and political improvements Sought more cosmopolitan, tolerant, humane, and reasonable society Ideas of the Enlightenment spread even further
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The New Science of Man
Newtons scientific methods were thought to be useful to address the natural laws of social man Could the scientific process be used to solve the inherent problems and challenges of society? Eighteenth century movement called the science of man or the social sciences Philosophes arrived at natural laws they believed to be universal
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The New Science of Man (cont)
Scottish philosopher David Hume thought that a science of man was possible A Pioneering social scientist Wrote Treatise on Human Nature
Experimental method of reasoning with reference to moral subjects Observation and reflection grounded in systemized common sense made conceivable a science of man
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The Physiocrats and Adam Smith Founders of economics Physiocrat leader was Francois Quesnay, French court physician Claimed they could discover natural economic laws Land constituted only source of wealth, their first principle Agriculture was only means to increase wealthall other activities were sterile and unproductive Revenues should come from a single tax on the land Rejected mercantilism, their second principle, and the idea of moneygold and silver
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The second principle of the physiocrats was the rejection of mercantilism Emphasized the natural economic forces of the supply and demand
Individuals should pursue their own economic self interestsall society will benefit Government should leave the system alone. Dont regulate Doctrine became known as laissez-faire (noninterferencelet people do as they choose)
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Scottish philosopher Adam Smith
Best statement of laissezfaire Made in 1776
Adam Smith
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Wrote The Wealth of Nations

Three basic principles of economics, including an attack on mercantilism First principle--condemned the use of tariffs. Better to purchase a product from another nation rather than try to produce it if the other nation produces it cheaper
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Second principle, labor theory of value
Gold and silver do not constitute true wealth Labor of individuals farmers, artisans, merchants, etc., constitute the true wealth of nations
Adam Smith
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Third Principle, Government should not interfere with economic management
Adam Smith
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Adam Smith Principle three (cont)government only has three jobs

To protect society from invasion To defend individuals from injustice and oppression To keep up certain public works, such as roads and canals, that private individuals could not afford
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Between the Physiocrats and Adam Smith, they laid the foundation of 19th century economic liberalism

Government: stay out Economic liberty
Adam Smith
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The Later Enlightenment
By the 1760s, new group of philisophes emerged
Grew up in the Enlightenment Went beyond the original group
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Movement beyond the beliefs of predecessors Baron Paul d Holback, German aristocrat who settled in Paris
Doctrine of strict atheism and materialism Wrote System of Nature
Everything in universe is matter and motion Humans are machines and God is only in the mind People need only reason to live in the world Please ourselves because we must live with each other
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Baron Paul dHolback
Let us persuade men to be just, beneficent, moderate, sociable; not because the gods demand it, but because they must please men
Most intellectuals remained deists, as they the effect of atheism on society
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Marie-Jean de Condorcet, French philosophe
Victim of turmoil of French Revolution Wrote his chief work while in hiding during the Reign of Terror
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The later Enlightenment
Marie-Jean de Condorcet wrote The Progress of the Human Mind

Humans had progressed through 9 historical stages With science and reason, humans will enter tenth Tenth stage would be one of perfection. There is no limit to the perfecting of the powers of man Shortly after composing his work, he died in a French revolutionary prison
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Rousseau and the Social Contract
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, born in Geneva As youth, wandered France and Italy doing jobs
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
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Later, studied classics and music
A paid lover of an older woman Eventually made his way to Paris
Introduced to philosophes in Paris Jean-Jacques Rousseau
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Rousseaus political beliefs in two major works, Discourse on
the Origins of the Inequality of Mankind and The Social Contract
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
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Discourse
Humans were happy in their primitive stateno laws, judges, equality--but then they made changes To preserve private property, people adopted laws and governments rushed headlong not to liberty but into chains Government is an evil, but a necessary one
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He wrote, The Social Contract

Tried to harmonize individual liberty with government authority Society agrees to be governed by their general will Individuals compelled to abide by the general will
People should be forced to be free General will is communitys highest aspirations What is good for all is good for each individual
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This means nothing less than that he will be forced to be free

What was best for all was best for the individual True freedom is adherence to laws that one has imposed on oneself
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The creation of laws could never be delegated to a parliamentary institutionor legislature Any law which the people has not ratified in person is void; it is not law at all as soon as Members are elected, the people is enslaved; it is nothing. The ultimate statement of participatory democracy
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He wrote, Emile
Important work on education Education should foster childrens natural instincts Saw a necessary balance between feelings and reason Importance of promptings of the heart Precursor of the intellectual movement called Romanticismemphasis on the heart, that dominated Europe at the beginning of the nineteenth century
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Rousseau: did he practice what he preaches?
His children sent to foundling homes Viewed women as naturally different
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Rousseau
She needs a soft sedentary life to suckle her babies. In Emile, Sophie, Emiles intended wife was educated to be a wife and mother by learning obedience and nurturing skills to provide loving care to her husband and children
Made ideas of gender an important issue
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Rousseau was described in three ways:

The father of romanticism A prophet of democracy An apologist for totalitarianism
Which was he?
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The Womans Question in the Enlightenment

Men framed debate of value and nature of women Many male intellectuals argued the nature of women made them inferior to men
Based on natural biological differences
Some male writers critical of womens intellect
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Two intellectual men asserted women were not all that different (Diderot), and capable of all men are intellectually (Voltaire)
Denis Diderot
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Some women writers made suggestions Mary Astell, daughter of wealthy English coal merchant, wrote, A Serious Proposal to the
Ladies
Women needed to become better educated (of critical men) excuse me, if I be as partial to my own sex as they are to theirs.
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Mary Astell She wrote, Some Reflections upon Marriage

Argued for the equality of the sexes in marriage If absolute sovereignty be not necessary in a state, how comes it to be so in a family
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Mary Astell: Some Reflections Upon
Marriage
if arbitrary power is evilit ought not be practiced anywhere if all men are born free, how is it that all women are born slaves?
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Mary Wollstonecraft, an English writer
Viewed by many as the founder of modern European feminism
Mary Wollstonecraft
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Mary Wollstonecraft Wrote,Vindication of the Rights of Woman Subjection of women to men is as wrong as the arbitrary power of monarchs over people Writers like Rousseau seen to contradict their own statements about the power on monarchs over people or slave owners over people
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Mary Wollstonecraft: Vindication of the Rights of Women

The Enlightenment appealed to reason. If women have reason, then they are entitled to the same rights as men Women should have the same education, economic, and political rights
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The Social Environment of the Philosophes
Social background of philosophes varied
Aristocratic to lower middle class
Appeal of the Enlightenment mostly aristocracy Common people not effected much
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Spread of ideas to literate elite in European society
The publication of books and treatise Salons, elegant drawing rooms of the wealthy, brought philosophes and other guests for witty and enlightened conversations Aristocratic woman 18th century
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Hostesses of salons, women found themselves in a position to sway political and effect the decisions of kings
Salon hostess, 18th century

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The reputation of a salon was based on the stature of the males attracted Some complaints occurred that females exerted undue influence on political affairs
Exaggerated, but Salons declined during the French Revolution
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The salons were important in promoting conversation and Enlightenment thought
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Coffeehouses, cafes, reading clubs, and public lending libraries important in spreading ideas Learned societies formed in Europe and America
Select Society of Edinburgh, Scotland, and the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia Secret societies developed like the Freemasons established in London in 1717
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Culture and Society in the Enlightenment

The intellectual adventure fostered by the philosophes was accompanied by both traditional practices and important changes in 18th century culture and society
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Innovations in Art, Music, and Literature
Baroque and Neoclassical styles gave way to Rococo
Baroque and Neoclassical emphasized majesty, power, and movement
Rococo brought change
Rococo
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Rococo, new style of decoration and architecture, entered 1730s

Emphasized grace and gentle action Followed wandering lines of natural objects (seashells and flowers)
Rococo
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Rococo
Charm speaks to pleasure, love, and life (secular) Could be used with Baroque Baroque-Rococo architecture was popular style of 18th century Gold, delicate contours, graceful curves
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Balthasar Neumann, one of greatest architects of the 18th century. Known for two masterpieces
Pilgrimmage church of the Viezehnheiligen, Germany (see text) Bishops palace, known as the Residenz of Wurzburg Light, bright colors; elaborate and rich detail Mix of secular and spiritual
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Innovations in Art, Music, and Literature (cont)

Neoclassicism continued to make strong appeal in 18th century France Simplicity, dignity, and classical style of ancient Greece
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Jacques-Louis David, re-created a scene from Roman history

Oath of the Horatii

Horatius brothers swore an oath before their father, proclaiming their willingness to sacrifice their lives for their country (see text)
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The Development of Music

The 17th and 18th centuries saw the rise of the opera, oratorio, sonata, concerto, and symphony Italians were the first to develop above formats
Germans, Austrians, and English followed
Most musicians depended on a patronperhaps a prince who would offer a court and financial support
Helped make Italy and Germany music leaders
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Bach and Handel1600-1750 timeframe

Composers, seen as geniuses Baroque music style
Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750)

Came from family of musicians Became director of church music at the Church of Saint Thomas in Leipzig Composed his Mass in B Minor
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Bach
One of the greatest composers of all time Music was a worship of God
well ordered music in the honor of God
George Frederick Handel (1685-1759)

Born in Germany the same year as Bach Stormy international life and secular in temperament Moved to England attempting most of his life to run an opera company
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Handel
Wrote for large audiences, writing some huge, unusual sounding pieces
Band for his fireworks music was to be accompanied by 101 canon Wrote 40 operas, and more
Best known for his religious music
Messiah called one of those rare works that appealed
immediately to everyone, and yeta masterpiece of the highest order
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Orchestra music not until second half of 18th century

New instruments like the piano appeared Classical Era, new musical period, (1750-1830) Representing this new the orchestra music era are Haydn and Mozart
Their renown caused the musical center of Europe to shift from Italy and Germany to the Austrian Empire
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Franz Joseph Haydn (1732-1809)

Spent most of adult life as musical director for wealthy Hungarian princes, the Esterhazy brothers Composed 104 symphonies, plus numerous string quartets, concerti, songs, oratorios, and Masses Trip to England introduced him to writing for public concerts rather than princes
Wrote two oratorios, The Creation and The Seasons, both dedicated to the common people
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Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791)
Child prodigy, started in Salzburg Gave first concert at age 6, wrote first opera at 12
Mozart, age 6
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Mozart
Moved to Vienna, unable to find a permanent patron which made his life miserable Wrote music prolifically and passionately, but died a debt-ridden pauper at 35
Mozart
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Mozart
Carried tradition of Italian comic opera to new heights. Three of worlds greatest operas

The Marriage of Figaro The Magic Flute Don Giovanni
Blended grace, precision, and emotion, arguably, no one has excelled

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The Development of the Novel
The novel grew out of the medieval romances and 16th century stories English credited with establishing the novel as main vehicle for fiction writing Proved attractive to women readers and writers Samuel Richardson, printer, started writing at 50
First novel, Pamela: or, Virtue Rewarded Appealed to sensibilities
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The Development of the Novel
Henry Fielding (1707-1754) Wrote novels abut people without scruples who survived with their wits
The History of Tom Jones, A Foundling, was his
best Emphasized action rather than inner feeling However, he did attack the hypocrisy of his age
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The Writing of History
Philosophes created revolution in history writing

Secular orientation Eliminated role of God in history Could focus on events
Voltaire
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History writing
for causal relationships in natural world Broadened the scope from just politics to economic, social, intellectual, and cultural developments The Age of Louis XIV by Voltaire was written not just to depict his life, but to depict the spirit of men in the most enlightened age the world has ever seen Voltaire initiated the modern ideal of social history
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Voltaire, as much as anyone, initiated the modern ideal of social history Weakness of philosophes stemmed from their preoccupations as philosophes
Sought to instruct as well as entertain Goal was to help civilize their age History could play a role by revealing its lessons according to their vision
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Philosophes writing history (cont)

Emphasized reason and science Disliked Christianity, making them less sympathetic to the Middle Ages
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Philosophes writing history
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, by

Edward Gibbon
Portrayed the growth of Christianity as a major reason for Romes eventual collapse Also thought the decline had many causes Edward Gibbon
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The High Culture of the Eighteenth Century
High Culture, by 18th century

Literally and artistic world of educated and wealthy Latin as language Theologians, scientists, philosophes, poets, etc. Supported by wealthy and literate lay group, mostly landed aristocracy and rich upper classed in cities
Popular Culture
Written and unwritten lore of the masses, most passed down orally
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Expansion of reading public and publishing Authors making money, less dependent on patrons Development of magazines, Great Britain leading the way
Twenty five published in 1700, 158 in 1780 Best known, Spectator, by Joseph Addison and Richard Steele, started in 1711
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The Female Spectator featured articles by

female writers Newspapers began to appear
First newspaper printed on London in 1702 By 1780, 37 other towns had newspapers Cheap and provided free in coffeehouses
Books circulated more widely
Public libraries and private circulating libraries

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Education and Universities
Large number of privately endowed secondary schools by 18th century

Tended to be elitist, meeting needs of upper class Perpetuated class hierarchy instead of social mobility
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Privately endowed secondary schools
Philosophes reinforced idea to keep people in their original social class
Education should teach princes to reign, the ruling classes to distinguish themselves by their merit and virtue, the rich to use their riches well, the poor to live by honest industryBaron dHolbach
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Privately owned secondary schools

Still largely concentrated on Greek and Latin classics Not much mathematics, science, or modern languages
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Complaints by philosophe-reformers led to attempt at more practical curriculums most common complaints
Too much emphasis on classics and Aristotelian philosophy No training in sciences and modern languages
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In Germany, the Realschule opened 1747 and offered modern languages, geography, and bookkeeping to prepare boys for business New schools also opened for women, but emphasized religions and domestic skills Few scientific discoveries of 18th century occurred in universities
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Crime and Punishment

Most European countries had hierarchy of courts Judicial torture was important means of obtaining evidence for trial Punishments were cruel and spectacular Nobles executed by simple beheading Lower class criminals torturedbroken at the wheel, drawn and quartered, etc.
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Public executions seen as necessary for deterrence Death penalty was commonly usedmore than 200 crimes earned the death penalty
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There was forced labor in mines, forts, and navies Sent criminals as indentured servants to colonies
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Italian philosophe, Cesare Beccaria, wrote, On
Crimes and Punishments
Punishments should only serve as deterrent, not brutality Against capital punishment
By end of 18th century, prisons replaced much of capital punishment actions
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The World of Medicine
University medical education conducted in Latin and based on Galen medicine even to 17th and 18th centuries. Based hierarchy of positions Graduate with doctorate in medicine needed for license to hold regular patient consultations
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The World on Medicine
Below physicians were surgeons whose main jobs were to bleed patients and perform surgery
Surgery often done without painkillers and under filthy conditions Bleeding believed to combat variety of illnesses
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In 1740s, surgeons began to separate themselves from the barbers and organize into guilds Surgeons underwent more training in anatomy
Began to be licensed Began to see patients
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Apothecaries, midwives, and faith healers served the common people Hospitals were filthy and often people would leave with diseases they didnt have when they went in
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Popular Culture
Social activities and other pursuits common to lives of most people Festivalsa variety of celebrations
Christmas and Easter Carnivals People ate, drank, and celebrated to excess
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Carnival
Celebrated the weeks leading up to Lent Time of great indulgence

Lots of food Offensive songs Verbal and physical aggression through insults and pelting with eggs, apples, flour, etc. Criticism of superiors OK
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Taverns and Alcohol
People also gathered in taverns and cabarets Social gatherings in neighborhoods Cheap alcoholic beverages led to physical and monetary problems for average people
The rich drank different beverages such as port or brandy causing fewer physical problems
The differences in drinking habits and the abandoning of festivals by the rich was symbolic of abandoning the popular world view as well
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Taverns and Alcohol
Abandoning the world view
Upper classes now viewed such things as witchcraft, faith healing, fortune telling, and prophesy as the beliefs, such are of the weakest judgment and reason, as women, children, and ignorant and superstitious persons.
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Literacy and Primary Education
Pop culture not entirely oral
Chapbooks were short brochures sold by peddlers to lower classes containing spiritual and secular material
Lives of saints, adventure stories, etc. Promoted literacy
While the wealthy and middle class artisans grew in literacy, women and peasants remained largely illiterate
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Protestant reformation and bible reading led to more interest in literacy Some states, Germany, Swiss, Scotland, etc., made an effort toward mass education Efforts to teach the lower classes was often thwarted by the upper class because they feared educating the lower classes would lead to rebellion
Teaching hard work and loyalty to superiors was seen as paramount

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Hannah More, English writer, set up a network of Sunday schools, explains her philosophy
They learn on weekdays such coarse work as may befit them for servants. I allow of no writing for the poor. My object is to train up the lower classes in habits of industry and piety.
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Religion and the Churches

Life was becoming secularized and men of reason attacked the churches. Yet much of the art and music was religious. Most Europeans were Christian. Accepted by most church critics was that society could not function without faith
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The Institutional Church
Churches of 18th century upheld societys hierarchical structure

No dramatic internal changes Church, run by priest or pastor, was center of religious practice Kept records of births, deaths, and marriages Provided charity for the poor Supervised primary education Cared for orphans
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Church-State Relations
Protestant Reformation established state control over the churches Protestant state churches flourished throughout Europe in 18th century Scandinavia, north German states, England, Scotland, etc.
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Catholic church still exercised much control by 1700. Church had enormous wealth In Spain, 3000 monastic institutions housing 100,000 men and women controlled enormous land estates Spain, Portugal, France, Italy, Hapsburg empire, Poland, and southern Germany
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Catholic church remained on top of the hierarchy structure

Bishops, archbishops, abbots, and abbesses were members of the upper classes Received revenues from landed estates and faithful tithes Wide gulf between upper and lower clergy
Bishop of Strasburg received 100,000 livres a year, parish priests paid 500
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States sought to control (nationalize) the Catholic churches

Meant controlling the papacy and Society of Jesus Jesuits had created special enclaves within states and French, Spanish, and Portuguese colonies
Much political influence Created many enemies Spain and France demanded the Society be dissolved and Pope Clement XIV complied
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Jesuits had acquired much success and power Monarchs distrust Jesuits
Portugal, Spain, France expelled the Jesuits Spain and France asked Pope Clement XIV to dissolve the Jesuitshe reluctantly did
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The termination of the Jesuits paralleled the decline in papal power Mid-eighteenth century, papacy played only minor role in diplomacy and international affairs The papacy could no longer appoint high clerical officials
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Toleration and Religious Minorities
Philosophes had called for religious toleration Many rulers still found toleration difficult to accept
Louis XIV had suppressed the rights of Huguenots It was seen as true duty of ruler not to allow subjects to be condemned to hell by being heretics Persecution continued and the last burning of heretics took place 1781
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Toleration and Religious Minorities
Some progress made toward religious toleration through Joseph II of Austria

Toleration Patent of 1781 Granted Lutherans, Calvinists, and Greek Orthodox the right to worship privately In all ways, all subjects were now equal
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Toleration and the Jews

Jews were the most despised religious minority of Europe Largest number called Ashkenazic Jews Except for Poland, they were restricted in their movements, forbidden to own land or hold many jobs, forced to pay special taxes, and subject to outbursts of popular wrath
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Toleration of the Jews
Pogroms were actions that saw looting of Jewish communities and the massacre Jews
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Sephardic Jews were another major group

Lived in Amsterdam, Venice, London, Frankfurt, etc., relatively free to practice banking and commercial activities, which they had done since the Middle Ages Provided valuable services to courts
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Treatment of Jews They were still set apart and socially resented Many philosophes denounced persecution of Jews Many Europeans favored assimilation of Jews but only if they converted to Christianity not acceptable to most Jews
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Austrian emperor Joseph II tried new policy

Too limited Freed the Jews from nuisance taxes Allowed more freedom of movement and jobs Restricted from owning land Could not worship in public Encouraged them to learn German Encouraged greater assimilation into German society
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Popular Religion in the Eighteenth Century

Despite the rise of skepticism and the intellectuals belief in deism and natural religion, religious devotion remained strong in the 18th century
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Catholic Piety
European Catholic religiosity difficult to assess

Parish was important center for community Hard to establish regular attendance figures Ninety-plus percent attended Mass on Easter Sunday
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Catholic Piety
Catholic piety
Much externalized form of worship, e.g., prayers to saints, pilgrimages, and devotion to relics and images Parishioners more superstitious than devout Feared witches and prayed to Virgin Mary to save them from personal disasters caused by the devil
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Protestant Revivalism: Pietism
Protestant state-run churches established good patterns and served by well-educated clergy Bureaucratic and bereft of religious enthusiasm
In Germany and England, where there was more rational Christianity, ordinary Protestants wanted a deeper religious experience leading to new religious movements
Pietism was one response to rationalism
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Protestant Revivalism: Pietism
Pietism
Begun in 17th century by German clerics Spread by teachings of Count Nikolaus von Zinzwndorf and his Moravian Brethren (sect) Personal experience of Godtrue religious experience Zinzedorf: He who wishes to comprehend God with his mind becomes an atheist
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Protestant Revivalism: Pietism (cont)
Protestant churches offered little excitement in England as well Anglican church offered little excitement Dissenting ProtestantsPuritans, Quakers, Baptists, were relatively subdued Deeper spiritual experience gone unmet until John Wesley
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Wesley and Methodism
John Wesley, ordained Anglican minister (17031791)

Experienced deep spiritual, mystical experience an assurance was given me, that He had taken away my sinssaved me from the law of sin and death The gift of Gods grace assured him of salvation Criticized by Anglican church as emotional mysticism
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To Wesley, all could be saved by experiencing God and opening the doors to His grace
John Wesley
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Wesley
Spoke to masses in open fields Concentrated on lower classes neglected by elitist Anglicans Charismatic preaching fostered highly-charged conversion experiences
John Wesley
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Wesley Converts organized into Methodist societies for good works Became separate religious sect after Wesleys death despite his preference to keep Methodism within Anglican church Proved need for spiritualism not expunged by search for reason
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Conclusion
The 18th century was about change and, to some degree, tradition
Influenced by Scientific Revolution and particularly ideas of Locke and Newton Philosophes hoped they could create new society through natural laws, like laws of science Believed education could produce better human beings and better society
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Conclusion
Attacking traditional religion and creating the new science of man in economics, politics, justice, and education, the philosophes laid the foundation for a modern worldview based on rationalism and secularism Despite secular thought, most people still lived in God, religious worship, and farming.
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Conclusion
The most brilliant architecture and music of the age were religious Yet, secular changes were underway and would lead to both political and social upheavals before centurys end
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The Eighteenth Century: An Age of Enlightenment: AP European History

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The Eighteenth Century: An Age of Enlightenment

AP European History Chapter 17

Marie-Therese de Geoffrin hosted distinguished foreigners, philosophers, and artists

Not all artistic and intellectual hearts were captured by secularism

Critical Thinking Question

The Paths to Enlightenment

The Popularization of Science

Spread of scientific information was not direct from scientist to people.

The link to the people of the scientific discoveries the philosophes

The Popularization of Science

The Popularization of Science

The Popularization of Science

A New Skepticism (cont)

One critic of Dictionary called it the Bible of the eighteenth century

The Impact of Travel Literature

The Impact of Travel Literature

The Impact of Travel Literature

The Impact of Travel Literature

Certainties about European practices gave way to cultural relativism

The Legacy of Locke and Newton

The Legacy of Locke and Newton

Newton frequently singled out

Philosophes enchanted by Newtons world machine

The Legacy of Locke and Newton

John Lockes theory of knowledge especially influenced the philosophes

The Legacy of Locke and Newton

The Legacy of Locke and Newton

The Legacy of Locke and Newton

The Philosophes and Their Ideas

Philosophes were intellectuals and not all philosophers

The Philosophes and Their Ideas

Philosophes had different circumstances, but the many common threads

The Philosophes and Their Ideas

The Philosophes and Their Ideas (cont)

Philosophes found ways around censorship

The Philosophes and Their Ideas (cont)

Although bound together by common bonds, philosophes often disagreed

Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Diderot

Montesquieu and Political Thought

Charles de Secondat, the Baron de Montesquieu

His first book, Persian Letters

Montesquieu and Political Thought (cont)

Montesquieus most famous work, The Spirit of the Laws

Montesquieu and Political Thought

The Spirit of the Laws distinguished three basic kinds of governments

Montesquieu and Political Thought (cont)

Montesquieu and Political Thought (cont)

Voltaire and the Enlightenment

Voltaire and the Enlightenment

Voltaire and the Enlightenment

Voltaire and the Enlightenment

Voltaire and the Enlightenment

Voltaire and the Enlightenment

Voltaire, Crush the infamous thing.

Religious intolerance, fanaticism, and superstition

Voltaire and the Enlightenment

Voltaire and the Enlightenment

Diderot and the Encyclopedia

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Diderot and the Encyclopedia

Condemned Christianity as fanatical and unreasonable considered it the worst religion

the most absurd andatrocious in its dogma Diderot