11

Specific Occupancy Details and Hazards

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Objectives (1 of 2)
Determine the unique design and construction details found in buildings based on occupancy type Establish how occupancy-specific building code requirements dictate particular safety features

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Objectives (2 of 2)
Identify the unique details and hazards associated with specific occupancies Understand how occupancy specifics affect firefighting operations

11

Introduction
Occupancy Is the type of use Plays a role in how a building is constructed This chapter gives occupancy types and building hazards Details related to codes are city specific The codes in your locale may differ

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Apartment Buildings
Garden Apartments Combustible multiple dwellings include garden apartments, modern row houses, and townhouses Condominium is not a usefully descriptive term for fire fighters

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Characteristics of Garden Apartments

Solid masonry Brick veneer over platform wood frame Partially solid masonry, partially brick veneer on wood Wood

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Height Limit
Three stories Difficult to reach victims at rear windows of top-floor apartments

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Individual Living Units

Usually confined to one floor Some are multi-floor units Some structures may have both one floor and multi-floor units

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Balconies
Customary in many apartments Combustible or noncombustible construction Cantilevered balconies can collapse in fires

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Gable Roof Attics

These extend over the entire structure Attic fire barriers are frequently not effective because they have been compromised

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Peaked Roofs
Are dangerous to fire fighters They must have a pitch to drain rainwater Pitch creates a void between the tops of horizontal ceiling beams and the sloping roof Fire can spread laterally through this space

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Interior Construction
Is almost totally of wood Multiplies the fire extension potential through the voids inherent in combustible construction

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Plumbing Fixtures
Vertically aligned Piping is run through vertical voids Structural members weakened by cutting

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Escaping a Burning Structure

Escaping from a single-floor ranch home is easier than from the top floor of a combustible multiple dwelling Stairways, enclosures, and attics overhead are combustible Stairways are safe for no one

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Educating the Management and Tenants

Be fully insured Keep property in a bank vault Call the fire department immediately if a fire or gas leak is suspected In a fire, evacuate immediately, even if the fire seems inconsequential

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Parking
Space is generally limited Need minimum of 20 feet of clear width, proper turning radii, red striping of curbs, and signage Illegal parking must be eliminated

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Building Location
Map drill Drill identifies gullies and fences Building owners should be encouraged to provide lettering and numbering on buildings

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Gas Service
Provides special hazards Layout usually done with little thought for fire fighters Meters are grouped together and represent a substantial weight Case example: Gas hangers giving way Case example: Single large gas tank had its regulator fail

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Water Supply
Hydrants often on private mains Should be checked periodically Older complexes often have undersized mains Have the owner conduct a flow test

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Protected Combustible Construction

Fire-rated gypsum board sheathing or shell of the structure prevents the spread of fires Does not yield heat when burned in pure oxygen Gypsum has excellent fire protection characteristics

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Effect of Fire on Gypsum Board

Calcination occurs when gypsum board is heated by fire This process appears to be irreversible Removing all burned gypsum board makes the most sense

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Fire Rating of Gypsum Board

(1 of 2) National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 251/American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) E119 fire-resistance test Rating of gypsum board cannot be separated from the test structure of which it was a part

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Fire Rating of Gypsum Board

(2 of 2) Underwriters Laboratory (UL) warns that its rating is not assigned to individual components

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Gypsum Board Installation Deficiencies

Gypsum board commonly is nailed up over voids with a large or even infinite air supply behind it; ample air exists to fuel fires Nail heads not properly cemented over Joints not properly taped

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Protective Sheathing
Protects the combustible structure from a fire in the contents A single hole can cause disaster Any penetration allows the fire to spread to the structure, thus converting a contents fire to a structural fire

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Penetrations (1 of 2)
Failure to close the gypsum sheath around utilities Failure to install the gypsum sheath behind the bathtub Thin wood door casings are the only sheaths

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Penetrations (2 of 2)
Fire can ride the ventilation air flow in attics Floors are easily penetrated downward by a fire with todays fuels Dangerous, hidden voids are prevalent in the rehabilitation of older buildings

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Protected Combustible Is Not Fire Resistive

NFPA 25/ASTM E119 The fire resistive characterization should be rejected Even protected combustible is overly generous

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Firewalls/Barriers and Draft Stops

Firewalls are often used to separate units in multi-family residential structures Primary defect involves not bringing a masonry firewall through the roof with a masonry parapet Masonry typically not fitted tight enough to roof

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Overhangs or Mansards
Permitting them to project beyond the firewall is another defect in firewalls This provides a gap for fire to pass around the end of the wall Fire can pass around a firewall that ends at the interior of a combustible exterior wall

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Utilities
Often are passed through the firewall Openings around pipes pass fire Better to run utility mains parallel to the building with branches into each unit Utility openings cut into firewalls are often unprotected

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Openings at the Basement Level

Provide access to storage and laundry areas Usually designed and built with proper self-closing doors Often, doors are blocked open

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Firewall as a Party Wall

Creates problems Party walls often have beams or girders from both sides in the same opening Common openings provide a path for fire extension

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Older Row-Frame Buildings

Often had brick laid in the party wall stud voids as a firewall Barrier is incomplete The brick nogging (brick and mortar filling between studs) does not block the floor or attic voids

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Firewalls/Barriers and Draft Stops

Are intended to limit the combustible void area in the attic to which the fire has access Some barriers are now being made of twoinch gypsum plank Cuts produce openings for fire access

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Effectiveness of the Fire Barrier

May range from temporarily reliable to totally useless Never as good as a parapeted masonry firewall

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Defects in Fire Barriers and Draft Stops

Delaminated plywood Barriers that do not extend out to the eaves but stop at the wall line Omitted nail coverings and joint taping, and utilities or structural elements passing through

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Fire Barriers above the Mid-point of a Room

Both sides of the barrier are exposed to fire coming out the windows Fire barrier is placed even if it doesnt continue a fire separation below

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A Word about Sprinklers

Automatic sprinklers Extinguish content fires Rarely will control any fire that originates in, or extends to, the voids NFPA 13R

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NFPA 13R Systems and Garden Apartments Complexes

Often share the same water main with the hydrants that are in the complex Hooking to a hydrant can take water from the sprinkler system

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Serving the Citizens

Homeowners Have personal property or homeowners insurance Renters insurance Too inexpensive to be actively sold Renters suffer crushing financial blows

11

Older Row Frame Buildings

Frame buildings often erected in rows Structures are contiguous Often have a common attic or cockloft May have party walls

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Brick or Stone Nogging

Is a crude attempt at creating a fire barrier Does not cut the floor voids or the cockloft Served as a heat sink for warmth Acts as additional hazard in a collapse

11

Townhouses
New name for row house Rarely does an adequate masonry firewall exist between the separate buildings Without such a firewall, entire structure is all one building

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The Three Decker

Typically found in New England Three-story flat-roofed structures with three apartment units They have porches on each level

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Porches of Three Deckers

Play a critical role in fire spread The porches offer a large surface area on which the fire can burn

11

Atria
A large open space within a structure connecting two or more floors A large void that passes through multiple floors allowing smoke and heat to move vertically through the building

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Codes Requirements for Atria

Full sprinkler protection throughout the building A smoke control system Standby power for the building Floor limited to low fire hazards Up to three floors can be open

11

Three Levels Open to the Atrium

Must be included in the calculations of the smoke control system design Volume is included in the exhaust system System must exhaust smoke from these areas Designs often neglect to provide a means for exhausting these areas

11

Smoke Control System

Activation is usually triggered by water flow and smoke detectors Projected beam detectors can cover large areas with a single beam of light

11

Sprinkler Protection
Usually straightforward in buildings with an atrium Atrium and floors open to the atrium are zoned separately from the sprinklers in the rest of the building

11

National Experience
Limited experience with actual fires in atria Case example: In 1991, a fire occurred in the Polo Club high-rise in Denver Case example: Grand Californian Hotel in Anaheim in 2005

11

Churches and Synagogues

Open area structures Large occupant loads Holidays bring special concerns

11

Older Churches
Sometimes have multiple levels of seating Galleries surround the main sanctuary Narrow stairs impede egress

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Stained Glass Windows

Valuable for ventilation Invaluable in terms of cost and heritage

11

Renovations
Cutting and welding operations, burning off old paint, and other construction activities have ignited numerous churches and synagogues Case example: 1998 New York City Central Synagogue blaze

11

Covered Mall Buildings

A single building enclosing a number of tenants Anchor stores, large stores attached to the mall, have all of their required exits independent of the mall

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Recent Building Codes

Have allowed covered mall buildings to be of unlimited area Predicated on the use of Type I, II, II, or IV construction and having 60 feet of open space around them

11

Vertical Spread of Heat and Smoke in a Fire

Malls have the added problem of horizontal spread of heat/smoke None of the tenant spaces have a firerated separation from the mall Malls have large occupant loads

11

Physical Separation Between Tenants

Must be fire-rated Need not go to the floor/roof deck above A roll down grille-type gate will allow smoke to move into the mall proper

11

Fire Protection in Malls

Complete sprinkler protection A smoke control system A standpipe system An emergency voice communications system Standby power

11

System Requirements
Require analysis during your preplanning Sprinkler system often separately zoned for mall proper and tenant spaces Feed main supplying the tenant spaces will run along the front of the store

11

Standpipe System
Is a Class I system Hose outlets in the mall at the entrance to each corridor and exit passageway Outlets also at each floor level in stairwells and at exterior public entrances

11

Smoke Control System

Similar to that of an atrium Attempts to minimize horizontal movement of the smoke Attempts to exhaust the smoke through the roof over the mall

11

City Requirements
Some require a standardized lettering and numbering system Letters designate blocks/rows of stores and numbers indicating particular tenants

11

Factories
Production equipment can pose a safety risk to fire fighters Hazards include large moving parts, confined spaces, and pressurized vessels The weight of the machinery in a building on fire could cause a collapse

11

The Building Itself

Circular stairwells Ships ladders Open loading docks, limited access (including lack of windows), and adjacent storage/warehouse areas

11

Hazardous Materials Production and Storage

Storage includes the more familiar flammable and combustible liquids as well as more exotic substances Pyrophoric gas is gas that ignites in air without the introduction of an ignition source

11

Fire Codes
Hazardous materials management plan (HMMP) Hazardous materials inventory statement (HMIS)

11

Limits on Quantity
Codes specify types of hazardous materials that may be stored/used in a building Exempt quantities are permitted Exempt quantities are permitted in control areas

11

When Amount Exceeds the Exempt Quantity

Numerous construction requirements apply Special systems or building features will be required

11

Explosives
Building codes require that they be handled in buildings with substantial fireresistive construction This restraint almost guarantees increased explosive destruction

11

Buildings Housing Hazardous Processes

Used to be isolated and built of friable construction elements A steel frame covered with an easy-toreplace material is another method If an explosion occurred, the board became dust-like particles

11

Special-Purpose Buildings
May be designed to channel the force of an internal explosion in a desired direction Heavy walls can protect one transformer from an explosion in an adjacent transformer

11

High-Rises
There are many definitions of high-rise buildings International Conference on Fire Safety in High-Rise Buildings defined a highrise as a building beyond the reach of aerial ladder equipment Author Brannigan disagrees

11

Fire Department Tactics

Preceding definition is acceptable and valid as applied to tactics Other buildings which are not high rises, such as airport terminals and large shopping malls, present many of the same problems

11

High-Rise Buildings: Potential Problems

Not just one single problem Fire-significant construction differences exist among high-rises

11

High-Rise Building Design

Usually designed to resist the effects of fire on the structural frame of the building and the floors Whether the design concepts used are adequate to cope with all these possible effects is quite another matter

11

General Classifications of High-Rise Buildings

Fire-resistive high-rise buildings have evolved over time Buildings built during certain time frames tend to share some common characteristics

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Early Fire-Resistive Buildings, 18701930

There were no standards for the protection of steel Cast iron columns and steel ties were often exposed Terra cotta fireproofing was compromised. Voids were created by wooden floors placed on piers

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Other Hazards in Early FireResistive Buildings (1 of 2)

Segmental (curved) brick or tile arch floors were tied with exposed steel ties; often laid in an improvised manner Segmental brick and tile arches were supplanted by terra cotta tile arches

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Other Hazards in Early FireResistive Buildings (2 of 2)

No protection was provided for the underside of the steel beams Other common hazards: high fire loads, poor masonry closures, inadequate standpipe systems

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Later High-Rise Building Construction, 19201940 (1 of 2)

Generally excellent buildings with typically low fire loads Were universally of steel-framed construction Floor construction and steel fireproofing were often concrete or tile.

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Later High-Rise Building Construction, 19201940 (2 of 2)

Small floor areas and each floor was a well-segregated fire area Standpipe systems wet and pressurized

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Modern High-Rise Buildings

(1 of 2) Many floors have substantial areas beyond the reach of hand hose streams. Reinforced concrete became a serious competitor to steel as a construction material Necessity for fireproofing is an apparent cost disadvantage to steel

11

Modern High-Rise Buildings

(2 of 2) Electrical services and communications systems have increased, along with flammable insulation Steel-truss floor and ceiling assemblies provide useful voids for fire and smoke Gypsum rather than masonry is often used to enclose elevator and other shafts

11

General Problems and Hazards with High-Rises

Multiple problems can exist across buildings of different eras Common issues to consider: exists, stairways (including accommodation and access stairs), possible areas for forcible entry, elevators, building occupancy

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Exits
Should provide a clear path to the outside Model building codes have permitted 50% of exit stairwells to end in the buildings lobby This arrangement is confusing to occupants Case example: 1993 bombing of the World Trade Center in New York

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Occupancy
Offices, hotels, apartments, homes for the elderly, factories, and showrooms are all different Some buildings have mixed occupancies Case example: Different standards applied to apartments versus office in same building

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Accommodation or Access Stairs

Access stairways are usually done as alterations and are rarely enclosed Result is two or more floors becoming one fire area Case example: One Meridian Plaza fire Duplex and triplex apartments often have no exits from the upper levels

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Forcible Entry
Building security (e.g., multiple locks) may make entry difficult Common area for forcible entry: gypsum wallboard on studs Reinforced masonry is difficult to breach Stairways may be locked against re-entry; some codes require no more than four intervening floors between re-entry floors

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Elevators (1 of 2)
Extrication of trapped persons requires detailed knowledge Hardened and robust elevators and shafts recently developed Some elevators inaccessible to fire fighters Case example: One Meridian Plaza fire

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Elevators (2 of 2)
Shaft and elevator door restrictors prevent opening from inside Case example: World Trade Center, September 11, 2001

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Smoke Movement in High-Rise Buildings

Thermal Energy Is the principal smoke-moving mechanism Can be massive Case example: MGM Grand Hotel fire in Las Vegas. The burning rate of the fuel was estimated at 3 tons per minute

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Atmospheric Conditions
Lapse is when the atmospheric temperature decreases as height increases Pause occurs if there is a layer of air warmer than the air below it Inversion layer acts as a roof to rising smoke

11

Wind
If the windows are out and the fire is on the leeward side of the building, fire suppression may be a piece of cake If the fire on the windward side of the building, it may be impossible to move into the fire floor

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Stack Effect (1 of 2)
The movement of air inside a tightly sealed building Stack effect is not caused by a fire Most significant in cold climates in the wintertime

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Stack Effect (2 of 2)
In winter: delivers smoke that has lost thermal energy to upper floors In summer: makes cold smoke fall downward

11

Air Conditioning
Individual room units Single-floor systems One or more building systems for the entire building Modern systems have full-exhaust capability

11

Smoke Removal Systems

Questions to ask Will the fire department operate the system? Will the building engineer operate it?

11

Fire Control
Some say this can be accomplished by manipulating the air supply There is no such thing as a clean-burning, hostile fire In a fire, materials generate toxic and explosive gases

11

Smoke Removal System Design

Design is an extremely complicated task Can supplement the primary defense but it is certainly no substitute for adequate protection Complex in larger buildings

11

Compartmentation
Some assume that fire-resistive buildings automatically provide compartmentation This may be case in older buildings, but modern buildings often have poor perimeter fire stopping and multiple penetrations for wiring

11

Pressurized Stairways
One or more of the stairways equipped to be pressurized when fire occurs Pressure differential will keep the stairways free of smoke Occupants must be trained to use the proper stairway

11

Installation of Special Equipment

Equipment designed to function in case of fire should be installed under the supervision of the fire department Fire department should be familiar with its operation and supervise its testing and maintenance

11

Fire Load and Flame Spread

Consider interior trim and contents Fires can gain great headway in combustible trim Case example: Multiple layers of wall coverings were a major factor in an Atlanta office building fire; 10 died

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Contents
The new flame spread problem Case example: First Interstate Bank fire Heavy fire loads may be found in special locations in high-rises Heavy plastic loads Wood paneling Office supply areas; telephone rooms

11

Maintenance Operations
Can provide unexpectedly serious fire loads Case example: Union Bank Building fire in Los Angeles on July 18, 1988

11

Rubbish
Often is concentrated in one location Condition of material results in high heat release rate Case example: A rubbish fire in an elevator Case example: Seven people died when a fire roared 35 stories up a blocked trash chute

11

Alterations to Occupied Buildings

Hazard exists when a building is altered or rehabilitated while occupied Hotels and motels tend to store furniture and materials haphazardly during renovations Case example: The disastrous Dupont Plaza Hotel fire in San Juan, Puerto Rico

11

Partial Occupancy of Buildings Under Construction

Fire protection systems are not complete Doors may not yet be installed on stairways and elevators LPG may be used in some areas

11

Automatic Sprinklers
Only method to limit toxic gases released in a fire The argument against sprinklers is usually an economic one The builder is creating the problem for profit. It is up to the builder to provide the solution

11

Some Building Inventory Item Questions

What is the value of fireproofing? Will ceiling tile failure permit partial collapse and open fire and smoke passage? Will smoke and fire pass to voids above, via re-entrant space? Are floor joints adequate firestops?

11

Horizontal Containment Questions

Are there utility openings or underfloor openings such as for computer cables? Have you considered penetration of relatively lightweight gypsum partitions as a substitute for forcible door entry? Are there deficiencies of stair enclosures?

11

Hospitals and Nursing Homes

Non-ambulatory people Are individuals who are not capable of self-preservation The building, the staff, and you must protect them

11

Older Facilities
Many lacked sprinkler protection Many have relied on passive protection Case example: An unsprinklered hospital in San Antonio in the late 1980s

11

Key to Patient Safety

Move them horizontally, rather than vertically Smoke barriers are one-hour fire-rated walls that subdivide each floor into two or more separate areas

11

RACE
R: Remove all people in immediate danger to safety A: Activate the manual pull station and have someone call 911 C: Close doors to confine the spread of smoke and fire E: Extinguish the fire, if possible

11

Hotels and Motels (1 of 2)

Sites of many serious fires in last 75 years The 1990 Hotel and Motel Fire Safety Act Encouraged improvements in fire safety for these facilities nationwide Despite improvements, fires continue to occur

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Hotels and Motels (2 of 2)

In older motels, fire spread occurs through voids between the floors In newer hotels, interior corridors are conduits for smoke travel

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Jails and Prisons (1 of 2)

Inmates Are restrained and are incapable of getting out of the building to save their lives They rely on prison staff and the building for their safety

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Jails and Prisons (2 of 2)

Run the gamut from old to new, big to small Some use old technology, and some use new Some have full sprinkler protection, whereas others have none

11

Case Example: Jail Fire in Mitchell County, North Carolina

A recent fire in 2002 at the Mitchell County, North Carolina, jail killed eight inmates This was a 1950s-era facility that required the manual opening of doors

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Starting of Fires
Some jail fires start accidentally, but others are intentionally set by the inmates Several fires over the years have involved the use of polyurethane foam in a padded cell

11

Questions to Ask
Does the building have a sprinkler or smoke control system? Does it have smoke barriers? Are the inmates evacuated from the building?

11

Museums and Libraries

Recent fires 1986 Los Angeles Library fire Holocaust museum in Terre Haute, Indiana, in 2003 Biblical Arts Center Museum in Dallas in 2005

11

Fire Suppression System

Not always available Some institutions rejected sprinklers as causing too much water damage

11

Life Safety
The primary concern of fire fighters Many museums and libraries have magnetic door locks These are illegal

11

Preincident Plan
Will assist greatly when a fire occurs Ensure that the plan includes salvage operation details

11

Library Stacks
Libraries are the original high stack storage buildings Large main libraries have multi-level stack areas Guarantees the spread of fire and destruction of the books

11

Nightclub Fires
Case examples: 1942 Cocoanut Grove fire in Boston 1990 Happyland Social Club arson fire in the Bronx, New York 2003 fire at The Station nightclub in West Warwick, Rhode Island

11

Within the Club

Patrons who are not fully aware of their surroundings Clubs are often overcrowded Locked egress doors complete the potential for a disaster

11

Old, Worn-Out Structures

Many clubs are located in such structures Many of these existing clubs are not required to retrofit sprinklers

11

Office Buildings
Come in the five types of construction Are large and small Are high-rise or low-rise Now built in the openoffice plan

11

Fire Spread
Fire in a compartmentalized space is much different than a fire in an open office plan Case example: One Meridian Plaza highrise fire in Philadelphia Case example: Denver fire fighter killed in low-rise office building

11

Open Area Structures

Construction: often of wood, or with an exposed wood plank roof Such a building should be fully sprinklered Objection to sprinklers in a decorative wood structure is understandable

11

Non-Sprinklered Building
Try to keep out the kindling Minimize the minor light combustible structures or elements that can ignite the whole building Small structures should have sprinkler protection

11

Parking Garages
May be partially or totally above grade and open to the atmosphere All garage areas under buildings should be sprinklered Dry standpipes mean it will be slow to get water to the nozzles of your hose lines

11

Restaurants
Common fire location is in the kitchen Model building codes do not require a firerated separation between the kitchen and the dining area

11

Cooking Hood Extinguishing Systems

Author Corbetts experience with them has not been all positive Several of the systems have failed

11

Preincident Planning
Note location of the utilities Make note of the use of propane Case example: The use of propane in a New Jersey shore restaurant where patrons were forced to break windows to escape the fire

11

Schools: Building Code Regulations (1 of 2)

Shaped by the 1958 Our Lady of Angels fire in Chicago Led to better and more frequent fire drills Led to lower and more accessible windows for escape

11

Schools: Building Code Regulations (2 of 2)

Also led to: Abatement of open stairwells Alarm systems Fire-rated corridor and doors

11

Unique Features of Schools

Corridor widths are much larger than normal Egress systems may be unusual

11

Potential Issues
Corridor lengths are particularly long Note special hazards such as woodworking and machine shops

11

Single Family Homes

The California Bungalow Popular all across the country Often there is no ridge beam in these homes The attic often contains a high fire load of stored materials

11

The Cape Cod

1 -story home with a steep pitched roof Is a platform-framed structure Stairway to the second floor is near the front door

11

The Ranch House

Open interiors, large attics, and extended overhangs Spaced close together Often, there is a failure to place a detector in the attic

11

The Split Level

Top level usually contains the bedrooms The middle level, the dining room, living room, and kitchen The lower level, the recreation room and laundry room Platform-framed

11

The Victorian
Significant amounts of ornamentation Steep pitched roofs Balloon frame construction

11

Taxpayers and Strip Malls

Taxpayers Often of ordinary (Type III) construction Commonly one story in height with full or partial basements and common cocklofts or attic spaces Usually limited to 6 to 10 small stores

11

Fire Spread in Taxpayers

Is typically through the cockloft above all of the stores Movement of the structure below can cause the parapet to fall Hazards include the steel plates on the roof Rotted wood floors also dangerous

11

Strip Mall Characteristics

Construction varies (may be Type II, III or V) Nearly all are one story May or may not have basements; often have common cockloft or attic spaces 15 to 20 small stores and a large anchor store or two Greater store depth than in taxpayers

11

Strip Mall Surroundings

Parking lot can be helpful, but also can be detrimental Private hydrants must usually be used Delivery truck driveway may be poorly maintained

11

Occupancy Types
Variety of tenants Variety of hazards Fire-rated separation Fire walls

11

Structural Fire Resistance

Increase the allowable area by increasing the fire resistance of the structural members Fireproof the steel by applying a fireresistive coating Large nightclubs require a higher level of structural fire resistance

11

Sprinkler Systems
Some building codes require automatic sprinklers for retail sales rooms larger than 12,000 square feet Others require sprinklers for mercantile fire areas larger than 12,000 square feet

11

Facts to Know about Sprinkler Systems (1 of 2)

The areas of the strip mall that are sprinklered Whether the system provides complete protection The type of systemwet or dry

11

Facts to Know about Sprinkler Systems (2 of 2)

The location(s) of the main riser control valve(s) The location of the fire department connection and the areas of the building it supplies

11

Utilities
Most modern strip malls have multiple utility meters/cutoffs The meters/cutoffs should be identified by suite number Note the location of the utility meter bank in your preincident plan

11

Forcing Entry
How you will gain access through the front and rear doors? Roll-down metal shutters Rear doors may have metal bars During your preincident visits, make sure doors are identified by number

11

Firefighting Considerations
Fire can spread readily from tenant space to tenant space A roof of solid wood joists A strip mall with steel bar-joists and a built-up roof Fires in wood truss voids You must get ahead of the fire

11

Theaters
Stages and Platforms Stage has a proscenium arch and wall, hanging curtains, drops, and scenery; lighting; and support rooms Platform is a raised area in a building where there are only lighting and sound effects

11

Requirements for Stages

(1 of 2) More extensive fire protection requirements than platforms A fire-resistant proscenium curtain Flame-resistant scenery Heat vents over the stage

11

Requirements for Stages

(2 of 2) Two-hour-rated separations between the stage and appurtenant rooms Sprinkler protection Class III standpipe Case example: 1903 fire in the Iroquois Theater in Chicago

11

Warehouses (1 of 2)
Huge concentrations of fuel Tremendous dollar values Few employees per unit of area Failure to segregate extra-hazardous materials such as flammable liquids Failure to raise the bottom layer of stock above the floor

11

Warehouses (2 of 2)
Vulnerability to arson Failure of management to give attention Inadequate fire protection, either in initial design or in maintenance High rack storage

11

Pallets
Lift truck allows stock to stacked on pallets Pallet storage system provides as much as 36 times the surface area as boxes stacked solid Idle pallet storage is dangerous

11

Shelving
Creates miniature floors Case example: An estimated $14 million loss occurred in a rack storage warehouse in Kernersville, North Carolina, in March 1981

11

NFPA 13: Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems

Fire Department Connection (FDC) used to be optional NFPA 13 now requires the connection except for systems of 20 sprinklers or less

11

Modern Rack Storage Warehouses

Now found across the country Noncombustible construction The size can be unlimited

11

Merchandise
Handled by mechanical equipment Operation is fully or partially automated

11

Rack Storage Warehouse Fire Resistance

Like a multi-storied building without the fire resistance provided by even the poorest floor Early suppression fast response (ESFR) sprinklers can suppress a fire without inrack sprinklers

11

Dry Storage of Boats

Special type of rack storage warehouse Stacks boats several levels high in open or partially enclosed rack structures Boats are of combustible fiberglass, and many contain fuel

11

Warehouse Concerns
Modern contents of warehouses are increasingly higher-hazard materials Automatic sprinkler systems that are adequate for the job as installed can be defeated by changes in the operation and storage patterns of the warehouse

11

The Building
If a building is concrete, it is inherently noncombustible Building is not inherently fire resistive Concrete T-beam roofs Conventional metal deck built-up roof

11

Static Defenses: Fire Walls and Fire Doors (1 of 2)

Fire walls in steel structures Probably are not free standing Offer passive fire protection as long as no openings exist

11

Static Defenses: Fire Walls and Fire Doors (2 of 2)

Solid masonry wall parapeted through the roof is the most dependable fire barrier, but may be decorative or pierced Combined elements may not function together effectively

11

Dynamic Defenses: Automatic Sprinkler Protection

Unparalleled record of suppression or control of incipient fires Record cannot be taken as an indication of what can happen in a high or dense storage warehouse

11

Failure in a Sprinkler System

Early distortion and collapse of the steel roof from which the sprinkler system is suspended Exacerbated by the exposure presented by a fire in stored pallets

11

Fire Hazards Growing

Fixed oscillating nozzles may be used Such systems used for large lumber piles and refineries

11

Foam System Protection

Some sprinkler systems deliver low expansion foam Used for flammable liquid fires Case use: The Chicago Tribunes rolledpaper warehouse

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Attitudes: Management
Unlikely that management is fully familiar with the details of serious fires Case example: Smithsonian Institution Case example: Warehouses holding what they were not designed to hold

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Fire Department Actions

Initial planning and plan review Inspection of construction Routine and special inspections Regular liaison with the warehouse manager Adequate planning for fire suppression

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Preplanning
Liaison officer disseminates information to all who should have it Warehouse manager should designate a specific senior subordinate to maintain relationship with the fire department liaison officer

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On the Fire Ground

Watch for these collapses or failures Combustible metal deck roof fires Pretensioned concrete T-beams Truss roof Connections of heavy timber roof Tilt-slab walls, outward and inward

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Racks
May be erected across the openings at the far end of aisles May make dead-end aisles

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Fire Fighter Access Doors

Should be every 100 feet in a high-piled stock warehouse The doors should be opened/forced early in the fire to provide emergency egress for fire fighters

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Solid Rack Shelves

Garment making generates huge amounts of combustible scraps Case example: Triangle Shirtwaist fire (New York, 1912) Misunderstanding about unsprinklered shelving Sprinkler spray blocked by shelves

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Ventilation
Better to close up the building and let the sprinklers do the job, or to vent it and attempt a combined attack? Case example: Smoke removal fans for a fire in a walk-in dumpster

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Handline Operations
Follow the hose back to safety if lost Hose line fed from an interior hose outlet is not a lifeline If interior outlets are used, lifelines should be strung to the exterior from the outlet

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Personal Safety
All planning should place the safety of fire fighters first No one else is going to take care of it

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Summary (1 of 3)
Occupancy influences building construction Combustible multiple dwellings include garden apartments, modern row and townhouses and similar structures Hospitals and nursing homes have numerous non-ambulatory people

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Summary (2 of 3)
Jail and prison inmates rely on staff and fire fighters for evacuation Houses of worship span the five basic types of construction and can present a myriad of challenges for fire fighters Office buildings can be built using any of the five types of construction

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Summary (3 of 3)
Nightclubs are typically overcrowded and occupant judgment may be impaired Warehouse rack storage has brought major fire problems to Anyplace, USA