Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
By
Mara del Refugio Garza Landeros
Introduction
Along the years, many different teaching methods have been developed whether to face students needs or to match the requirements of a new administration, all of them claiming to be the best option to teach English. Lets remember some of them. . .
TPR uses a sentence-based grammatical syllabus. TPR main learning techniques and activities are based on situations where a command is given in the imperative and the students obey the command.
Rods (are used to trigger meaning, and to introduce or actively practice language. They can even be manipulated directly or abstractly to create sentences) Self-correction Gestures (T uses hands to indicate that something is incorrect or needs changing) Word Chart (the sounds in each word corresponding in color to the Sound-Color Chart described above students use this to build sentences) Fidel Chart (A chart that is color-coded according to the sound-color chart but includes the various English spellings so that they can be directly related to actual sounds) Structured Feedback (Students are invited to make observations about the day's lesson and what they have learned) It is a unique method and the first of its kind to really concentrate on cognitive principles in language learning.
The Community Language Learning method involves some of the following features: (1) Students are to be considered as "learner-clients" and the teacher as a "teacher-counselor". (2) A relationship of mutual trust and support is considered essential to the learning process. (3) Students are permitted to use their native language, and are provided with translations from the teacher which they then attempt to apply. (4) Grammar and vocabulary are taught inductively. (5) "Chunks" of target language produced by the students are recorded and later listened to - they are also transcribed with native language equivalents to become texts the students work with. (6) Students apply the target language independently and without translation when they feel inclined/ confident enough to do so. (7) Students are encouraged to express not only how they feel about the language, but how they feel about the learning process, to which the teacher expresses empathy and understanding. (8) A variety of activities can be included (for example, focusing on a particular grammar or pronunciation point, or creating new sentences based on the recordings/transcripts).
Typical Techniques (1) Tape Recording Student Conversation (Ss choose what they want to say, and their target language production is recorded for later listening/dissemination) (2) Transcription (T produces a transcription of the tape-recorded conversation with translations in the mother language - this is then used for follow up activities or analysis) (3) Reflection on Experience (T takes time during or after various activities to allow students to express how they feel about the language and the learning experience, and T indicates empathy/understanding) (4) Reflective Listening (Students listen to their own voices on the tape in a relaxed and reflective environment ) (5) Human Computer (T is a "human computer" for the students to control - T stating anything in the target language the student wants to practice, giving them the opportunity to self correct)
(6) Small Group Tasks (Ss work in small groups to create new sentences using the transcript, afterwards sharing them with the rest of the class)
Suggestopedia
In the late 70s, a Bulgarian psychologist by the name of Georgi Lozanov introduced the contention that students naturally set up psychological barriers to learning - based on fears that they will be unable to perform and are limited in terms of their ability to learn. Based on psychological research on extrasensory perception, Lozanov began to develop a language learning method that focused on "desuggestion" of the limitations learners think they have, and providing the sort of relaxed state of mind that would facilitate the retention of material to its maximum potential. This method became known as "Suggestopedia" - the name reflecting the application of the power of "suggestion" to the field of pedagogy. Main Objective To tap into more of students' mental potential to learn, in order to accelerate the process by which they learn to understand and use the target language for communication. 1. 2. 3. 4. The four factors considered essential in this process: The provision of a relaxed and comfortable learning environment. The use of soft Baroque music to help increase alpha brain waves and decrease blood pressure and heart rate. Desuggestion" in terms of the psychological barriers learners place on their own learning potential, and Suggestibility" through the encouragement of learners assuming "child-like" and/or new roles and names in the target language.
(7) Students work from lengthy dialogs in the target language, with an accompanying translation into the students' native language.
(8) Errors are tolerated, the emphasis being on content and not structure. Grammar and vocabulary are presented and given treatment from the teacher, but not dwelt on. (9) Homework is limited to students re-reading the dialog they are studying - once before they go to sleep at night and once in the morning before they get up.
(10) Music, drama and "the Arts" are integrated into the learning process as often as possible.
Typical Techniques (1) Classroom Set-up (Emphasis is placed on creating a physical environment that does not "feel" like a normal classroom, and makes the students feel as relaxed and comfortable as possible) (2) Peripheral Learning (Students can absorb information "effortlessly" when it is perceived as part of the environment, rather than the material "to be attended to") (3) Positive Suggestion (Teachers appeal to students' consciousness and subconscious in order to better orchestrate the "suggestive factors involved in the learning situation) (4) Visualization (Students are asked to close their eyes and visualize scenes and events, to help them relax, facilitate positive suggestion and encourage creativity from the students) (5) Choose a New Identity (Students select a target language name and/or occupation that places them "inside" the language they are learning) (6) Role-play (Ss pretend temporarily that they are someone else and perform a role using the target language) (7) First Concert (T does a slow, dramatic reading of the dialog synchronized in intonation with classical music) (8) Second Concert (Students put aside their scripts and the teacher reads at normal speed according to the content, not the accompanying pre-Classical or Baroque music - this typically ends the class for the day) (9) Primary Activation (Students "playfully" reread the target language out loud, as individuals or in groups) (10) Secondary Activation (Students engage in various activities designed to help the students learn the material and use it more spontaneously - activities include singing, dancing, dramatizations and games - "communicative intent" and not "form" being the focus)
Whole Language
A holistic philosophy of reading instruction which gained momentum during the 1970s, '80s, and early '90s. Emphasizes the use of authentic text, reading for meaning, the integration of all language skills (reading, writing, speaking, and listening), and context. Key features of Whole Language 1. The key theoretical premise for whole language is that the world over, babies acquire language through actually using it, not through practicing its separate parts until some later date when the parts are assembled and the totality is finally used. 2. The major assumption is that the model of acquisition, through real use (not through practice exercises), is the best model for thinking about and helping with the learning of reading and writing. 3. Language acquisition (both oral and written) is seen as natural - - not in the sense of innate or inevitable unfolding, but in the sense that when language (oral or written) is an integral part of functioning of a community and is used around and with neophytes, it is learned "incidentally"... 4. Little use is made of materials written specifically to teach reading and writing. Instead, whole language relies on literature, on other print used for appropriate purposes (e.g. cake-mix directions used for really making a cake, rather than for finding short vowels), and on writing for varied purposes.
Key activities of Whole Language In order to Emphasize the use of letter/sound cues along with prior knowledge and context." teachers can do as follows: 1. by modeling how they themselves use meaning (and grammar) along with initial letters to predict what a word might be; 2. by repeatedly encouraging children to think "what would make sense here" before trying to sound out a word, 3. by engaging together in oral cloze activities based on their shared readings ("What would fit in this sentence, 'I put c------ in the soup?'") and 4. by discussing, in literature discussion groups, how various children dealt with problem words. It is critical to help children develop and use letter/sound knowledge in the context of constructing meaning from texts.
Multiple Intelligences
Psychologist Howard Gardner, put forth this theory which suggests that an array of different kinds of intelligence" exists in human beings, that each individual manifests varying levels of these different intelligences, and thus each person has a unique cognitive profile. Objective of Multiple Intelligences To find more ways of helping all students in their classes. The bottom line is a deep interest in children and how their minds are different from one another, and in helping them use their minds well. Gardner identifies kinds of intelligences based upon eight criteria to describe something as an independent kind of intelligence, rather than merely one of the skills or abilities included in a kind of intelligence, or a synonym for, or combination of other kinds of intelligence. He proposes the following list: Linguistic intelligence ("word smart"): Logical-mathematical intelligence ("number/reasoning smart") Spatial intelligence ("picture smart") Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence ("body smart") Musical intelligence ("music smart") Interpersonal intelligence ("people smart") Intrapersonal intelligence ("self smart") Naturalist intelligence ("nature smart")
Key Criteria for implementing Gardeners theory in the classroom. It's very important that a teacher take individual differences among kids very seriously Lesson design. Some schools focus on lesson design. This might involve team teaching ("teachers focusing on their own intelligence strengths"), using all or several of the intelligences in their lessons, or asking student opinions about the best way to teach and learn certain topics. Interdisciplinary units. Secondary schools often include interdisciplinary units. Student projects. Students can learn to "initiate and manage complex projects" when they are creating student projects. Assessments. Assessments are devised which allow students to show what they have learned. Sometimes this takes the form of allowing each student to devise the way he or she will be assessed, while meeting the teacher's criteria for quality. Apprenticeships. Apprenticeships can allow students to "gain mastery of a valued skill gradually, with effort and discipline over time." Gardner feels that apprenticeships "should take up about one-third of a student's schooling experience."
Neurolinguistic Programming
The word Neurolinguistic programming can be broken down to three distinct words:
1. Neuro, which refers to the brain and neural network that feeds into the brain. Neurons or nerve cells are the working units used by the nervous system to send, receive, and store signals that add up to information.
2. Linguistic(s) refers to the content, both verbal and non-verbal, that moves across and through these pathways. 3. Programming is the way the content or signal is manipulated to convert it into useful information. The brain may direct the signal, sequence it, change it based on our prior experience, or connect it to some other experience we have stored in our brain to convert it into thinking patterns and behaviors that are the essence of our experience of life. Objectives of Neurolinguistic Programming Our experiences and feelings affect the way we react to external stimuli. NLPs main objective is to create and provide tools to help people to learn through many different strategies and for many different modalities of teachers. Also,
Identifying and enriching personal strengths Enhancing memory and imagination Developing optimal learning states and strategies Dealing with resistances to learning Establishing beliefs that support learning Identify and reframe limiting beliefs relating to learning Management of multi-level learning interventions Transforming perceived failures into positive feedback Exploring interactive learning processes
NLP Activities in the classroom Different learning modalities and strategies can be used in classrooms. It is important to discover each student's combination of learning styles and talents to provide to it while simultaneously encouraging the development of all potential abilities (Dryden & Vos, 1999). So, basically a mixture of activities to reach all the different kinds of intelligences are recommended. In the model of NLP defining a learning strategy involves: 1. Identifying the particular sequence of representational systems a person uses within this feedback loop in order to acquire a mental or behavioral skill. 2. Eliciting a learning strategy by defining the specific sensory modalities (visual, auditory, kinesthetic) a person uses during the process of acquiring a certain ability or competency.
3. Helm (1990) experimentally has found no discernable differences between sexes or races as to the distribution of visual, auditory, and kinesthetic learning modalities.
4. The sense modalities are seen as the key to processing information and the mind and body are seen as mutually influencing each other (Craft, 2001). 5. Related to this NLP strategy concept is research conducted by Gardner (1993) to document that each person possesses at least seven different types of intelligence: linguistic intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence, visual-spatial intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, musical intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, and interpersonal intelligence. Gardener sees that individuals can excel in one area but not the others and that other types of intelligence can also exist. A single and universally effective learning strategy does not exist. Certain sequences of representational systems tend to be more appropriate for some learning tasks and they may be inefficient in other situations.
Here are some examples of Lexical Chunks (that are not collocations): by the way up to now upside down If I were you a long way off out of my mind
'Collocation' is also included in the term 'lexical chunk', but we refer to it separately from time to time, so we define it as a pair of lexical content words commonly found together. Following this definition, 'basic' + 'principles' is a collocation, but 'look' + 'at' is not because it combines a lexical content word and a grammar function word. Identifying chunks and collocations is often a question of intuition, unless you have access to a corpus. Here are some examples Lexical Chunks (that are collocations): totally convinced strong accent terrible accident sense of humor sounds exciting brings good luck
There are several aspects of lexis that need to be taken into account when teaching vocabulary. The list below is based on the work of Gairns and Redman (1986):
Boundaries between conceptual meaning: knowing not only what lexis refers to, but also where the boundaries are that separate it from words of related meaning (e.g. cup, mug, bowl). Polysemy: distinguishing between the various meaning of a single word form with several but closely related meanings (head: of a person, of a pin, of an organisation). Homonymy: distinguishing between the various meaning of a single word form which has several meanings which are NOT closely related ( e.g. a file: used to put papers in or a tool). Homophony: understanding words that have the same pronunciation but different spellings and meanings (e.g. flour, flower). Synonymy: distinguishing between the different shades of meaning that synonymous words have (e.g. extend, increase, expand). Affective meaning: distinguishing between the attitudinal and emotional factors (denotation and connotation), which depend on the speakers attitude or the situation. Socio-cultural associations of lexical items is another important factor. Style, register, dialect: Being able to distinguish between different levels of formality, the effect of different contexts and topics, as well as differences in geographical variation. Translation: awareness of certain differences and similarities between the native and the foreign language (e.g. false cognates). Chunks of language: multi-word verbs, idioms, strong and weak collocations, lexical phrases. Grammar of vocabulary: learning the rules that enable students to build up different forms of the word or even different words from that word (e.g. sleep, slept, sleeping; able, unable; disability). Pronunciation: ability to recognise and reproduce items in speech.
Subsequently, Richards and Rogers list a series of advantages of this methodology for the learner, The competencies are specific and practical and can be seen to relate to the learner's needs and interests. 2. The learner can judge whether the competencies seem relevant and useful. 3. The competencies that will be taught and tested are specific and public hence the learner knows exactly what needs to be learned. 4. Competencies can be mastered one at a time so the learner can see what has been learned and what still remains to be learned. (Richards and Rogers, 2001: p146-7) Activities for CBL: In a content-based approach, the activities of the language class are specific to the subject being taught, and are geared to stimulate students to think and learn through the target language. Such an approach lends itself quite naturally to the integrated teaching of the four traditional language skills. For example, it employs authentic reading materials which require students not only to understand information but to interpret and evaluate it as well. It provides a forum in which students can respond orally to reading and lecture materials. It recognises that academic writing follows from listening, and reading, and thus requires students to synthesise facts and ideas from multiple sources as preparation for writing. In this approach, students are exposed to study skills and learn a variety of language skills which prepare them for a range of academic tasks they will encounter. Brinton et al., in Richards and Rogers (2001:p220)
The main features of this model are outlined below: - The focus is on process rather than product. - Basic elements are purposeful activities and tasks that emphasise communication and meaning. - Learners learn language by interacting communicatively and purposefully while engaged in the activities and tasks. Activities and tasks can be either: Those that learners might need to achieve in real life; Those that have a pedagogical purpose specific to the classroom. Activities and tasks of a task-based syllabus are sequenced according to difficulty.
The difficulty of a task depends on a range of factors including : the previous experience of the learner, the complexity of the task, the language required to undertake the task, and the degree of support available. Feez in Richards and Rogers (2001: p 224)
METHOD
EVALUABLE PRODUCTS
Presentation or Challenge
Practice
Production
Activate Ss' awareness of the comparative and superlative forms Ss answer questions based on what Ss remember the basic on T has told them. Ss pair up to complete the first and comparative and superlative forms the second exercises on the work so they go on into sheet. higher difficulty Ss infer the rules for the construction of the comparative and level usage of them. superlative forms based on their completion of the previous tasks. T will probably have to point out that a three letter word following the CVC (consonant - vowel consonant) form will double the final consonant. Example: big bigger Encourage Ss to Ss get into groups of three to four recycle their and choose one of the topic previous headings in exercise number three knowledge, blend for their group. it with the new Ss then decide on three objects in one and improve the topic area to compare and both their skills contrast in superlative form and knowledge verbally. Test Ss level of Individually, Ss write a short acquisition of the paragraph including three new structures comparative sentences and three and the superlative ones on the topic they management they choose. have on it.
10
Multiple Intelligences
Neurolinguistic Programming Community Language Learning CompetencyBased Teaching All of the above but Silent Way
Verbal report at random (just to check they worked not marking mistakes in pronunciation) Paragraph written in their notebooks.
Conclusions
It is impossible or at least very difficult, to use only one method in an English class. Therefore, we will say we use an Eclectic Approach by applying what we think is the best option to help our students. Variety and Flexibility are the most important features to implement in a class, in any class. There is not a quintessential method nor an activity: it all depends on the teachers style and the students needs. Keeping updated in teaching stuff is a must.
Work sheet
Exercise 1 Read the sentences below and then give the comparative form for each of the adjectives listed.
Tennis is a more difficult sport than Jogging. I think John is happier now than a year ago. interesting ___________ weak ___________ funny ___________ important ___________ careful ___________ big ___________ small ___________ polluted ___________ boring ___________ angry ___________
Could you open the window, please? It's getting hotter in this room by the minute.
Exercise 2 Read the sentences below and then give the superlative form for each of the adjectives listed.
New York is the most exciting city in the world. His biggest desire is to return home. She is probably the angriest person I know.
interesting ___________ weak ___________ funny ___________ important ___________ careful ___________ big ___________ small ___________ polluted ___________ boring ___________ angry ___________
Exercise 3 Choose one of the topics below and think of three examples from that topic - for example: Sports - football, basketball and surfing. Compare the three objects.
Cities Sports Writers Films Inventions Cars
Sources of Information
Baigent, M. (2003) Vocabulary development strategies for teachers and learners http://www.oup.com/elt/global/teachersclub/teaching/articles/development/ http://www.sil.org/LinguaLinks/LanguageLearning/WaysToApproachLanguageLearnin g/.htm Larsen-Freeman, Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching (1986:45-47) http://www.education-world.com/a_curr/curr054.shtml http://www3.telus.net/linguisticsissues/teachingvocabulary.html Richards, J and Rogers (2nd Edition, 2001) Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.