Photolithography

D. Boolchandani Department of ECE

Malaviya National Institute of Technology Jaipur

Photolithography

In a microelectronic circuit, all the circuit elements (resistors, diodes, transistors, etc.) are formed in the top surface of a wafer (usually silicon). These circuit elements are interconnected in a complex, controlled, patterned manner. Consider the simple case of a silicon p-n junction diode with electrical contacts to the p and n sides on the top surface of the wafer.
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Photolithography

Silicon p-n junction diode with both electrical contacts on the top surface of the wafer: SiO2 Al n p-type substrate

Cross section:

Top view:
Can you draw the diode symbol on this diagram?
Photolithography

Photolithography

In order to produce a microelectronic circuit, portions of a silicon wafer must be doped with donors and/or acceptors in a controlled, patterned manner. Holes or windows must be cut through insulating thin films in a controlled, patterned manner. Metal interconnections (thin film wires) must be formed in a controlled, patterned manner. The process by which patterns are transferred to the surface of a wafer is called photolithography.
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Photolithography

Consider the fabrication of a silicon p-n junction diode with both electrical contacts on the top surface of the wafer: Al SiO2

Cross section:

n p-type substrate

Top view:
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Photolithography

We start with a bare silicon wafer and oxidize it. (The bottom surface also gets oxidized, but well ignore that.): SiO2

Cross section:

p-type substrate

Top view:
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Photolithography

We first need to open a window in the SiO2 through which we can diffuse a donor dopant (e.g., P) to form the n-type region: SiO2

Cross section:

p-type substrate

Top view:
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Photolithography

The starting point for the photolithography process is a mask. A mask is a glass plate that is coated with an opaque thin film (often a metal thin film such as chromium). This metal film is patterned in the shape of the features we want to create on the wafer surface.

Photolithography

Photolithography

For our example, our mask could look like this:

opaque metal,e.g.,Cr

Cross section:

glass plate

Top view:
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Photolithography

Recall that we start with a bare silicon wafer and oxidize it. (The bottom surface also gets oxidized, but well ignore that.): SiO2

Cross section:

p-type substrate

Top view:
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Photolithography

The wafer is next coated with photoresist. Photoresist is a light-sensitive polymer. We will initially consider positive photoresist (more about what this means soon). Photoresist is usually spun on. For this step, the wafer is held onto a support chuck by a vacuum. Photoresist is typically applied in liquid form (dissolved in a solvent). The wafer is spun at high speed (1000 to 6000 rpm) for 20 to 60 seconds to produce a thin, uniform film, typically 0.3 to 2.5 mm thick.
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Photolithography

After coating with photoresist, the wafer looks like this: Photoresist

Cross section:

p-type substrate

Top view:
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Photolithography

The wafer is baked at 70 to 90C (soft bake or pre-bake) to remove solvent from the photoresist and improve adhesion. Photoresist

Cross section:

p-type substrate

Top view:
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Photolithography

The mask is aligned (positioned) as desired on top of the wafer. Mask glass plate

Cross section:

p-type substrate

Top view:
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The photoresist is exposed through the mask with UV light. UV light breaks chemical bonds in the photoresist. Mask glass plate

Photolithography

Cross section:

p-type substrate

Top view:
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Photolithography

The photoresist is developed by immersing the wafer in a chemical solution that removes photoresist that has been exposed to UV light.

Cross section:

p-type substrate

Top view:
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Photolithography

The wafer is baked again, but at a higher temperature (120 to 180C). This hard bake or post-bake hardens the photoresist.

Cross section:

p-type substrate

Top view:
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Photolithography

The unprotected SiO2 is removed by etching in a chemical solution containing HF (hydrofluoric acid), or by dry etching in a gaseous plasma, containing CF4 , for example.

Cross section:

p-type substrate

Top view:
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Photolithography

The photoresist has done its job and is now removed (stripped) in a liquid solvent (e.g., acetone) or in a dry O2 plasma.

window Cross section:

SiO2

p-type substrate

Top view:
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Photolithography

Phosphorous is next diffused through the window to form an n-type region. The SiO2 film blocks phosphorus diffusion outside the window.

window Cross section:

n-type

SiO2

p-type substrate

Top view:
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Another photolithography step must be performed in order to open another window in the SiO2 so we can make an electrical contact to the p-type substrate from the top surface of the wafer. new mask glass plate
n-type

Photolithography

Cross section:

p-type substrate

Top view:
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Photolithography

The steps will not be shown in detail, but after photolithography, SiO2 etching, and photoresist stripping, the wafer structure is shown below. SiO2 n p-type substrate

Cross section:

Top view:
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Photolithography

The wafer surface is next coated with aluminum by evaporation or sputtering. The window outlines may still be visible. Al SiO2

Cross section:

n p-type substrate

Top view:
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Photolithography

Photolithography is used to pattern photoresist so as to protect the aluminum over the windows: Al SiO2

Cross section:

n p-type substrate

Top view:
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Photolithography

What must the mask look like in order to pattern the aluminum film? Assume that were still using positive photoresist. Al SiO2

Cross section:

n p-type substrate

Top view:
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Photolithography

The aluminum is etched where it is not protected by photoresist. Wet or dry etchants can be used. Al SiO2

Cross section:

n p-type substrate

Top view:
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Photolithography

Then the photoresist is stripped. Al SiO2

Cross section:

n p-type substrate

Top view:
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Photolithography

The final step is to anneal (heat treat) the wafer at ~ 450C in order to improve the electrical contact between the aluminum film and the underlying silicon. Al SiO2 n p-type substrate

Cross section:

Top view:
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Photolithography

So far we have only considered positive photoresists. For positive resists, the resist pattern on the wafer looks just like the pattern on the mask There are also negative photoresists. Ultraviolet light crosslinks negative resists, making them less soluble in a developer solution. For negative resists, the resist pattern on the wafer is the negative of the pattern on the mask.

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Photolithography

In order to align a new pattern to a pattern already on the wafer, alignment marks are used. Various exposure systems
Contact printing, Proximity printing, Projection printing, and Direct step-on-wafer (step-and-repeat projection).

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Photolithography

A complete photolithography process (photoresist + exposure tool + developing process) can be characterized by the smallest (finest resolution) lines or windows that can be produced on a wafer. This dimension is called the minimum feature size or minimum linewidth. The limitations of optical lithography are a consequence of basic physics (diffraction).
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Photolithography

For a single-wavelength projection photolithography system, the minimum feature size or minimum linewidth is given by the Rayleigh criterion:

wmin F k

NA

l is the wavelength. NA is the numerical aperture, a measure of the light-collecting power of the projection lens. k depends on the photoresist properties and the quality of the optical system. Photolithography 32

Photolithography

wmin F k

l
NA

So how do we reduce wmin ? Reduce k. Reduce l. Increase NA.

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Photolithography

wmin F k

l
NA

Even for the best projection photolithography systems, NA is less than 0.8. The theoretical limit for k (the lowest value) is about 0.25.
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Photolithography

wmin F k

l
NA

Lenses with higher NA can produce smaller linewidths. This linewidth reduction comes at a price. The depth of focus decreases as NA increases. Depth of focus is the distance that the wafer can be moved relative to (closer to or farther from) the projection lens and still keep the image in focus on the wafer.Photolithography 35

Photolithography

Depth of focus is given by:

l DF 0.6 2 ( NA)

Depth of focus decreases (bad) as l decreases. Depth of focus decreases (bad) as NA increases.

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Photolithography

Numerous light sources are (and will be) used for optical lithography: l wmin DF Light Source (nm) (nm)
(nm)

g-line (Hg lamp) 436 i-line (Hg lamp) 365 KrF laser ArF laser F2 laser 248 193 157
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311 260 175 140 112

850 730 500 400 320

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Photolithography

Complex devices require the photolithography process to be carried out over 20 times. over 20 mask levels Any dust on the wafer or mask can result in defects. Cleanrooms are required for fabrication of complex devices. Even if defects occur in only 10% of the chips during each photolithography step, fewer than 50% of the chips will be functional after a seven mask process is completed. How is this yield calculated?
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Photolithography

Other lithographic techniques will play a role in the future. Electron beam lithography Ion beam lithography. X-ray lithography.

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