Chapter Two

Abnormal Behavior:
Models and
Treatments
 Figure 2.1: The Major Models of
Psychopathology

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 Biological Models

• Assume the following:

– people are the people that they are and do the things
they do because of biological factors, particularly
genes
– changes in thoughts and emotions are associated
with biological changes
– Mental disorders are related to biological dysfunction
– Effective treatment of mental disorders is biologically
based.

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 Biological Factors

• Genetics: Physical features, susceptibility

to illness, temperament, handling stress
• Nerve cell activities (brain and spinal
cord): Thoughts, emotions, behaviors
• Brain Activity & Structure: Changes in
thoughts, emotions, behaviors
• Brain Dysfunction: Mental disorders
• Treatment: Drugs or somatic intervention

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 The Human Brain

• Weighs 3 pounds
• comprised of billions of neurons
• Forebrain: responsible for thinking, planning, reasoning and
decision making
• Midbrain: contains primitive centers for vision and hearing; relays
sensory information to the brain
• Hindbrain: responsible for sleep and arousal, muscle tone, cardiac
reflexes, attention and regulation of basic motor activities
• The Cerebral Cortex: The brain’s outermost layer; responsible for
our ability to reason, plan, remember and imagine. Comprised of
four lobes: Frontal, Parietal, Temporal and Occipital

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 The Human Brain

• Neurons: Nerve cells that transmit

messages throughout the body
• Two Hemispheres: Control opposite sides
of the body
• Right Hemisphere: Visual-spatial abilities
and emotional behavior
• Left Hemisphere: Language functions

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 Figure 2.2: The Internal Structure of the Brain

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 The Forebrain

• Controls higher mental functions:

consciousness, learning, speech, thought,
memory
• Thalamus: “Relay station” (transmits nerve
impulses throughout brain)
• Hypothalamus: Regulates bodily drives
• Limbic system: Experiencing/expressing
emotions and motivation

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 The Midbrain & Hindbrain

• Cerebrum: Largest structure in the brain

• Cerebral Cortex: Covers midbrain &
thalamus
• Midbrain: Vision & hearing; sleep, pain,
alertness (with hindbrain); produces
serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine

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 The Midbrain & Hindbrain (Cont’d)

• Hindbrain: Controls heart rate, sleep,

respiration; with midbrain also
manufactures serotonin
• Reticular formation: Network of nerve
fibers controlling sleep, alertness,
attention; threads its way from hindbrain
up into midbrain

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 Biochemical Theories

• Chemical imbalances underlie mental

disorders
• Dendrites: Receive signals from other
neurons
• Axons: Send signals to other neurons
• Synapse: Gap between axon of sending
neuron and dendrites of receiving neuron
• Neurotransmitters: Chemicals involved in
transmission of neural impulses

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 Figure 2.3: Synaptic Transmission

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 Table 2.1: Major Neurotransmitters
& Their Effects

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 Figure 2.4: Neurotransmitter Binding

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 Evidence for biochemical factors in mental
disorders:

• Drugs that alter neurotransmitter levels

alleviate symptoms for some people
• Biochemical studies suggest that these
drugs work by increasing or decreasing
the action of neurotransmitters at receptor
sites
• Certain chemical imbalances appear to be
disorder-specific

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 Genetic Explanations

• Biological inheritance transmitted by

genes
• Genotype: A person’s genetic makeup
• Phenotype: Observable (expressed)
physical & behavioral characteristics
• Genome: all the genetic material in the
chromosomes of a particular organism

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 Genetic Explanations for Abnormal Behavior

• Research suggests that genes play an important role in

the development of certain disorders. For example:
– Genes may increase reactivity of a person’s
autonomic (involuntary) nervous system
– Genes are related to development of alcoholism,
schizophrenia, mood disorders and others.
– The Human Genome Project: June, 2000 –
scientists mapped all genes in a human cell and its
sequencing (2001).
– However, only 2% of diseases can be traced to a
single gene; most are multifactorial.

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 Biology-Based Treatment Techniques

• Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT): Apply

electric voltage to the brain to induce
convulsions; used to reduce depression
• Psychosurgery: Brain surgery performed
to correct severe mental disorder
• Psychopharmacology: Study of the effects
of drugs on mind & behavior
(medication/drug therapy)

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 Table 2.2: Drugs Most Commonly Used in
Drug Therapy

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 Drugs Commonly Used for Treating
Mental Disorders

• Antianxiety drugs: Minor tranquilizers used

for anxiety, nervousness, tension (Librium,
Valium)
• Antipsychotic drugs: Major tranquilizers
used to control hallucinations (Thorazine,
Stelazine, Prolixin)
• Antidepressant drugs: Relieve depression
by correcting neurotransmitter imbalance
(Prozac, Paxil, Zoloft)

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 Criticisms of Biological Models

• Do not account for abnormal behavior if no

biological cause is found (e.g., phobias,
eating disorders)
• Ignore role of environmental, social,
cultural influences
• Diathesis-Stress Theory: A diathesis
(predisposition to develop illness) is
inherited and may or may not be activated
by environmental factors

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 Psychodynamic Models

• Adult disorders arise from childhood

traumas or anxieties and are later
repressed because they are too
threatening to face
• Psychoanalysis: Therapy based on
Freudian view that unconscious conflicts
must be aired and understood by the
patient if abnormal behavior is to be
eliminated

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 Personality Structure

• Id: Present from birth

– Operates on the pleasure principle: Impulsive,
pleasure-seeking aspect of being; immediate
gratification of instinctual needs
• Ego: Realistic, rational part of mind
– Operates on reality principle: Awareness of
environmental demands + need to adjust behavior to
meet these demands
• Superego: Moral judgments & moralistic
considerations:
– Conscience: instills guilt feelings
– Ego ideal: rewards altruistic or moral behavior
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 Personality Structure (Cont’d)

• Instincts give rise to thoughts & actions

and fuel their expression
• Dominant human instincts: sex and
aggression
• Freud: Although most impulses are hidden
from consciousness, they determine
human actions

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 Psychosexual Stages

• Sequence of stages through which

personality develops:
– Oral (first year of life)
– Anal (second year of life)
– Phallic (approximately age 3-6)
– Latency (approximately age 6-12)
– Genital (puberty and older)
• Fixation: Emotional development gets
stuck at a particular psychosexual stage

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 Table 2.3: Defense Mechanisms

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 Criticisms of Psychodynamic Models

• Freud used uncontrolled research methods

including case studies and his own self-study to
generate his psychological theory.
• Freud’s writings are unfavorable to women.
• Psychodynamic Therapy is not appropriate for
seriously disturbed, inarticulate, very young or
very old individuals.
• Research suggests that psychodynamic
therapies are only minimally more effective than
placebo treatments or no treatment

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 Behavioral Models

• Assume abnormal behavioral is learned.

• Assume rewards and consequences shape behavior.
• Classical conditioning: Involves learning to associate one
stimulus with another stimulus.
– Pavlov, 1849-1936
– Watson, 1920
– Therapy involves changing associations between stimuli
• Operant Conditioning: involves learning to associate behavior
with rewards and consequences.
– Thorndike, 1874-1949
– B. F. Skinner, 1904-1990
– Therapy involves changing rewards and consequences for
behavior.

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 Figure 2.5: A Basic Classical
Conditioning Process

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 Behavioral Therapies

• Systematic Desensitization: Reduce anxiety by

overcoming it with an antagonistic response
• Flooding: Extinguish fear by placing client in full
intensity, real-life anxiety producing situation
• Implosion: Extinguish fear by having client
imagine full intensity anxiety-provoking situation
• Aversive Conditioning: Suppress undesirable
behavior by pairing it with unpleasant stimulus
• Token Economy: Reward desired behavior with
tokens that are exchanged for food, privileges
• Punishment: Shock
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 Observational Learning Model

• A 3rd type of behavioral model

• Suggests we can learn and acquire new behaviors by watching
others.
– This type of learning is called vicarious conditioning or modeling.
– Direct and tangible reinforcement is not necessary for learning to
occur.
– Abnormal behavior is learned by watching others and can be
changed by observing models who:
• do not exhibit abnormal behavior
• are rewarded for normal behavior or punished for abnormal
behavior
• or who give subtle cues for normal behavior.

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 Criticisms of the Behavioral Models

• Neglect inner determinants of behavior

• Many studies conducted on animals rather
than humans
• Too mechanistic and inflexible

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 Cognitive Models

• Assume thinking and mental processes affect behavior

• Our cognitive interpretation of a situation affects our emotional
response to it.
• Irrational and maladaptive thoughts and ways of thinking contribute
to abnormal behavior.
• Teaching more rational thoughts and ways of thinking can decrease
abnormal behavior.
– Beck suggests three levels of thinking:
• Voluntary thoughts, that we have the greatest control over
• Automatic thoughts, that occur spontaneously or are
triggered by external events
• Underlying assumptions about ourselves and the external
world

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 Table 2.4: Beck’s Six Types of Faulty Thinking

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 Cognitive Models: Ellis

• Psychological problems are produced by

irrational thought patterns that stem from one’s
individual belief system
– Unpleasant emotional responses result from one’s
unrealistic and irrational thoughts about an event, not
the event itself
• A-B-C- Theory of Personality
– A= Activating Event, B= Beliefs about the Event, C=
Consequence
• It is the “B” (Beliefs about the event) that we may be able to
change.

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 Criticisms of Cognitive Models

• Skinner (1990) suggests cognitions are not

observable phenomena and can’t be empirically
studied.
• Too mechanistic – behavioral motivation is more
complicated than the cognitive models
represent.
• Cognitive therapists are too direct and
authoritative.
– Therapist, as teacher, expert, authority figure is direct
& confrontational and may intimidate client and
misidentify the disorder

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 Humanistic and Existential Approaches

• Assume each person has his or her own reality that is

the product of his or her experiences.
• In order to be effective, the therapist must understand
the client from his or her perspective.
• Individuals have the ability to make their own choices
and are responsible for those choices.
• Believe in the “whole” person rather than focusing on
simples formulas.
• Believe people have the capability to fulfill their potential
and live the lives they desire.

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 The Humanistic Perspective

• Carl Rogers (1902-1987)

• All people are basically good.
• People have a natural tendency to self-actualize, (to
reach their full potential).
• Abnormal Behavior results from incongruence between a
person’s inherent potential and his or her self-concept.
– This incongruence occurs when conditions of worth are
imposed by significant others in the person’s life.
• Treatment of abnormal behavior involves allowing the
person to experience a caring relationship of trust with
someone who has unconditional positive regard for
him, and views the client from his point of view.

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 The Existential Perspective

• Human beings need to be understood from their

perspective
• In confronting the possibility of their non-being,
individuals can find meaning in their lives.
• Self-fulfillment is not enough; individuals have
ethical responsibilities to others as well.
• The individuals positive attributes will be
expressed unless they are distorted by the
environment.

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 Criticisms of Humanistic & Existential
Approaches
• “Fuzzy,” ambiguous, nebulous nature
• Applied to a restricted population
• Creative in describing human condition, but not
in constructing theory
• Not suited to scientific or experimental
investigation
• Subjective, intuitive, & empathic, not empirically
based
• Effective with intelligent, well-educated, relatively
“normal” clients, not severely disturbed clients

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 The Family Systems Model

• Emphasizes the family’s influence on

individual behavior
• Characteristics:
– Personality development ruled by family
attributes
– Abnormal behavior is a reflection of unhealthy
family dynamics and poor communication
– Therapist must focus on family system, not
just the individual

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 Criticisms of Family Systems Model

• Definition of family may be culture bound

• Exclusive emphasis on the family systems
model may have negative consequences:
– Parental influence may not be a factor in an
individual’s disorder
– Parents are burdened with unnecessary guilt
over a situation they may be unable to control

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 Culturally Diverse Populations &
Psychotherapy
• European American perspectives see problems
located within the person
• Multicultural model suggests problems may be
located in social system
• Surgeon General’s Report:
– European American standards may result in denying
appropriate treatment to minority groups
– European American standards may oppress, not help,
culturally different clients
– Cultural concerns of minority group members must be
recognized and responded to

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