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The Neuron
dendrite
Transmission of information
Information must be transmitted within each neuron and between neurons
The Membrane
The membrane surrounds the neuron. It is composed of lipid and protein.
Ion Channels
Types
Ligand-gated
Example: neurotransmitters
Voltage-gated
Open and close in response to small voltage changes across plasma membrane
+
+ +
+ +
Voltage-gated channels are opened or closed by changes in membrane potential Ligand-gated channels opened or closed by hormones, second messengers or neurotransmitters.
Recording Potentials
+
-
+
-
+
-
outside
inside
Na
Na
Cl-
Na+
Na+
Cl-
outside
Forces on ions
The electrical voltages and concentration gradients across the membrane exert forces on the ions.
For K+ and Cl-, the forces of voltage and concentration are balanced. Organic anions are too large to pass through the membrane. BUT both voltage and concentration forces lead to Na+ entering the cell.
+ -
Cl-
Na+
outside
inside K+
K+
K+
inside
Resting membrane potential is the potential difference across the cell membrane in millivolts (mV).
The resting membrane potential is established by different permeabilities or conductances of permeable ions. a. For example, the resting membrane potential of nerve cells is more permeable to K+ than to Na+. b. Changes in ion conductance alter currents, which change the membrane potential. c. Hyperpolarization is an increase in membrane potential in which the inside of the cell becomes more negative. d. Depolarization is a decrease in membrane potential in which the inside of the cell becomes more positive.
Depolarization makes the membrane potential less negative (the cell interior becomes less negative) Hyperpolarization makes the membrane potential more negative Inward current the flow of positive charge into the cell. Outward current flow of the positive charge out of the cell.
ACTION POTENTIAL
Action potential property of excitable cells that consists of a rapid depolarization or upstroke, followed by repolarization of the membrane potential. Action potentials have stereotypical size and shape, are propagating and are allor-none.
[B]
[A]
[C]
[D]
1 2
excitation threshold
3
-70 0
Time (msec)
+ Na+
Na+
Na+
K+
+ -
Na+
Na+
K+
Step 1
Adequate stimulus is applied to a neuron, then the stimulus-gated Na+ channels at the point of stimulus open, Na+ diffuses rapidly into the cell producing a local depolarization
Step 2
If the magnitude of the depolarization surpasses a limit termed THRESHOLD POTENTIAL (-59 mV), the voltagegated Na+ are stimulated to open
Step 3
As more Na+ rushes into the cell, the membrane moves toward 0 mV, then continues to a peak of +30 mV (the + indicates that there is an excess of +ions inside the membrane
If the local depolarization fails to cross -59 mV the voltage-gated Na+ do not open and the membrane simply recovers back to the resting potential of -70 mV without producing an action potential
Step 4
Voltage-gated Na+ stays open for only about 1 ms before automatically closing. This means that once they are stimulated the Na+ always allow sodium to rush in. therefore the action potential is an all-or-nothing response
Step 5
Once the peak is reached the membrane potential begins to move back toward the resting potential termed REPOLARIZATION surpassing the threshold not only triggers the opening of voltage-gated Na+ but also the voltage-gated K+ these are slow to respond, however, and thus do not begin opening until the inward diffusion of Na+ has caused the membrane potential to reach +30 mV once the K+ are open it rapidly diffuses out of the cell. The outward rush of K+ restores the original excess of + ions on the outside of the membrane, thus repolarizing the membrane
Step 6
Because the K+ channels remain open as the membrane reaches its resting potential, too many K+ may rush out of the cell. This causes a brief period of hyperpolarization before the resting potential is restored by the action of the Na+-K+ pump and the return of ion channels to their resting state
K+
K+ K+ K+ K+ Na+ Na+ K+ K+ K+ K+ Na+ K+ K+ K+ K+
Na+
K+
K+
K+
Efflux of K+ ions
repolarization
Action Potential
Refractory Period
Sensitivity of area to further stimulation decreases for a time Parts
Absolute
Complete insensitivity exists to another stimulus From beginning of action potential until near end of repolarization
Relative
A stronger-thanthreshold stimulus can initiate another action potential
REFRACTORY PERIOD
1) Absolute refractory periodit is the period during an action potential, during which a second stimulus cant produce a second response.
2) Relative refractory periodit is the period during an action potential, during which a stimulus of higher intensity can produce a second response
Refractory Period
Is a brief period during which a local area of an axons membrane resists restimulation, for about ms after the membrane surpasses the threshold potential IT WILL NOT RESPONSD TO ANY STIMULI NO MATTER HOW STRONG Termed ABSOLUTE REFRACTORY PERIOD
REFRACTORY PERIOD
The RELATIVE REFRACTORY PERIOD occurs a few ms after the absolute refractory period This is the time in which the membrane is repolarizing and restoring the resting membrane potential Will only respond to very strong stimuli
Propagation of Action Potentials occurs by the spread of local currents to adjacent areas of membrane which are then depolarized to threshold and generate action potentials.
Myelination
Most mammalian axons are myelinated. The myelin sheath is provided by oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells. Myelin is insulating, preventing passage of ions over the membrane.
Saltatory Conduction
Myelinated regions of axon are electrically insulated. Electrical charge moves along the axon rather than across the membrane. Action potentials occur only at unmyelinated regions: nodes of Ranvier.
Myelin sheath
Node of Ranvier
Saltatory Conduction
ACCOMODATION
When a stimulus is applied very slowly, no matter however strong it might be, it fails to produce an action potential. Cause: a slowly applied stimulus causes slower opening of Na+ channels with concomitant opening of K+ channels. The influx Na+ of is balanced by efflux of K+ .
RHEOBASE- minimum current required to produce action potential. UTILIZATION TIME- time taken for response when rheobase current is applied. CHRONAXIE- time taken for response when twice rheobase current is applied. It is a measure of excitability of tissues.
STRENGTH-DURATION CURVE
STRENGTH
2X RHEOBASE
TIME