Nuclear Physics and Society Physics Department University of Richmond

Nuclear Basics

Motivation: Educate the Public and University communities about basic nuclear physics ideas and issues
U.S. Department of Energy Workshop July 2002, Washington D.C. Role of the Nuclear Physics Research Community (universities and national laboratories) in Combating Terrorism Education and Outreach Community

Local PD and FD

DOE Workshop
Cargo Containers 10,000,000 per year 10,000 per ship! 5 / minute @ L.A. < 3% inspected

Border Control/ US Customs

1,000,000 visas/year 422 ports of entry 1700 flights / day

290 ships / day

60 trains / day 1200 busses / day

540,000,000 border entries / year

Time per primary inspection

8 seconds => 1 hour delay

What the Course is/is not

This is not a radiation workers course
This is not a course that will certify you for anything

We hope that we can introduce you to some basic facts about nuclear physics, about radiation, about detectors etc., which may be useful for you to know.

Who are We
Con Beausang
Chairman & Associate Professor Physics Department

Jerry Gilfoyle
Professor, Physics Department

Paddy Regan
Professor Physics Department, University of Surrey, U.K.

Nuclear Physics and Society

Monday April 13th Lecture 1: The types of radiation, their properties and how these can be used to detect them. Some basic definitions. Introduction to radiation detectors.
Tuesday April 14th Laboratory Session: 12:15 3:30 pm Environmental Radiation Laboratory experience Measurement of half-life Demonstration of shielding Find the source Lecture 2: The creation of the elements. Nuclear physics in the cosmos. Wednesday April 15th Laboratory Session 2: 12:15 3:30 Repeat of Tuesdays experience Lecture 3: Applications of Nuclear Physics: Nuclear weapons, nuclear power and nuclear medicine. Thursday April 16th Lecture 4 Some of the frontiers of modern nuclear physics research 6

The Cookie Quiz

Alpha cookie

Beta cookie

Neutron cookie Gamma cookie

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The Cookie Quiz

Alpha cookie Beta cookie

Gamma cookie

Throw away
Put in pocket Hold in clenched fist Eat one

Neutron cookie

GOAL: Minimize your radiation exposure

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The Cookie Quiz: Answer 1

Neutron cookie

Throw away

Put in pocket

Beta cookie

Hold in clenched fist

Alpha cookie

Eat one

Gamma cookie

The Cookie Quiz: Correct Answer

Alpha cookie Gamma cookie Beta cookie Neutron cookie

Throw away

GOAL: Minimize your radiation exposure

Put in pocket Hold in clenched fist Eat one

Mutiny at once Retire from the navy and Toss ALL cookies away
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What are we made of ?

when was sugar andIspice and all things nice young(er), I waswhat little girls are made of thats curious snips and snails puppy dogs tails and thats what little boys are made of. ok mum, so what are sugar, spice and snails etc. made of?

cells molecules atoms

nuclei

The Uncertainty Principle

Heisenberg (Quantum Mechanics) D(position) D(momentum) > Constant Beausang (Teaching)

D(truth) D(clarity) > Constant

Atoms are made of

Electrons very light, but occupy most of the volume inside an atom Nuclei lie at the Core of Atoms very heavy, very small, very compact occupies almost none of the volume inside the atom

How do we know?
How to see the invisible? size of your probe scattering

Detector Zinc-sulfide screen

Alpha-particle beam

The eyes of Geiger and Marsden

Discovery of the nucleus ~1910

16-inch Battleship shells and tissue paper

Think of atoms as being like a mini solar system The sun at the center is the nucleus, the electrons orbit the nucleus, like the planets orbit around the sun Bohr Model

Electrons
Very small Point-like particles (i.e.nothing inside an electron) Very light ~ 1/2000th of proton mass

Negatively charged (-1 elementary charge) Electrons occupy almost all the space in the atom (orbiting the nucleus like the earth and other planets orbit the sun) Have almost none of the mass of the atom All of chemistry has to do with electrons from different atoms interacting with each other

The Nucleus
Made up of protons and neutrons

Almost all of the mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus. >99.9% of the known mass in the universe.
Occupies almost none of the volume of the atom. Radius < 1/10,000 Volume < 1/1,000,000,000,000

The nucleus is the source of almost all the things we commonly think of as being radioactive.

The Nucleus

Protons
Positively charged (+1 elementary charge) Size ~ 1 fm (10-15 m) Mass 938 MeV/c2 =1

Neutrons
Neutral (0 charge) Size ~ 1 fm (10-15 m) Mass 939 MeV/c2

~1

Neutrons are slightly more massive than the protons!!! This has huge consequences for us!

Delicate Balances

Laws of Physics

1) If it can happen it will happen

2) If some law forbids it to happen it will happen more slowly 3) If a process is really REALLY forbidden to happen it just takes a long time

Standard Model: Neutron and proton are very close relatives

quark structure proton (uud) neutron (udd)

Many laws allow neutrons to `change into into protons change a d-quark into a uquark (or vice versa)

beta-decay

The half life of a free neutron (i.e., one not inside a nucleus) is only about 12 minutes!!! Mass Neutron = 939.565330 MeV/c2 Mass Proton = 938.271998 MeV/c2 But Inside a nucleus neutrons are stable
Imagine if they were not! Then in ~ 1-2 hours the entire universe would be made of Hydrogen

E = mc2

The half life of a free proton is > 1031 years Inside some nuclei protons can decay into neutrons

The Nucleus
Atoms are electrically neutral The number of protons in a nucleus is equal to and determines the number of orbiting electrons

the chemistry the element name

Hydrogen (11H)

1 proton, 0 neutrons Mass = 1

Helium (4
2He)

Uranium (23892U)

(Alpha-particle)

2 protons, 2 neutrons Mass = 4

92 protons, 146 neutrons Mass = 238

The Nucleus
Many elements have several stable nuclei with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons same name same chemistry different mass

Isotopes

The Periodic Table of the Elements

Chart of the Nuclei

6 Z = No. of Protons 5 4 3 2 1 0 0
1H

8C 7B 6Be 5Li 3He 4He 2D 3T

9C 8B 7Be 6Li 5He

10C 9B 8Be 7Li 6He

11C 10B

12C 11B

13C 12B

14C 13B

15C 14B

16C 15B 14Be

17C

9Be 10Be 11Be 12Be 8Li 7He 9Li 8He 10Li 9He

11Li

n
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

N = No. of Neutrons

Chart of the Nuclei

The Landscape
~300 stable ~ 7000 unstable radioactive.

Half Life
Time taken for half of the substance to decay away
Example:

If you have 1000 radioactive nuclei

and If their half life is 30 minutes After 30 minutes 500 nuclei remain After 60 minutes 250 remain
There is a huge variation in half lives of different isotopes . From a tiny fraction of a second to roughly the age of the universe.

After 90 minutes 125 remain

After 120 minutes 62 remain

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Some Isotopes & Their Half Lives

ISOTOPE
HALFLIFE

APPLICATIONS

Uranium

billions of years 5730 y

30.2 y 12.3 y 74 d 66 h 6h

Natural uranium is comprised of several different isotopes. When enriched in the isotope of U-235, its used to power nuclear reactor or nuclear weapons. Found in nature from cosmic interactions, used to carbon date items and as radiolabel for detection of tumors.
Blood irradiators, tumor treatment through external exposure. Also used for industrial radiography. Labeling biological tracers. Implants or "seeds" for treatment of cancer. Also used for industrial radiography. Parent for Tc-99m generator. Brain, heart, liver (gastoenterology), lungs, bones, thyroid, and kidney imaging, regional cerebral blood flow, etc.
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Carbon-14
Cesium-137 Hydrogen-3 Irridium-192 Molybdenum-99 Technicium-99m

The Amount of Radioactivity is NOT Necessarily Related to Size

Specific activity is the amount of radioactivity found in a gram of material. Radioactive material with long halflives have low specific activity. 1 gram of Cobalt-60 has the same activity as 1800 tons of natural Uranium

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For Example: Suppose we have 1,000,000,000 atoms of material A with a half life of 1 second and

1,000,000,000 atoms of material B with a half life of 1 year

(real sources have many more atoms in them) Suppose they both decay by alpha emission.

In the First Second Substance A: Half the nuclei will decay 500,000,000 alpha particles will come zipping out at you.

1 year = 365 days * 24 hours * 60 minutes * 60 seconds = 31,536,000 seconds

In the First Second for substance B Only ~ 500,000,000 / 31,536,000 = 16 nuclei will decay only 16 alpha particles will come zipping at you
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On the other hand

In 10 seconds almost all of the radioactivity in substance A is gone away

But it takes years for the activity of substance B to go away!

Nuclear Bombs The fissile material (U or Pu) has a long half-life. Low specific activity. Not much activity on the outside. Dirty Bombs The radioactive material wrapped around the explosive would probably have a much shorter half-life. Perhaps significant activity on the outside.

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Types of Radioactivity
Five Common Types Alpha Decay Each type of radiation has different properties which affect the hazards they pose, the detection mechanism and the shielding required to stop them.

Beta Decay
Gamma Decay

Fission
Neutron Emission

Each of the particles emitted in the decay carries a lot of kinetic energy. Damage can be caused when this energy is absorbed in a human cell.
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Alpha Decay
An alpha particle () is an energetic, He nucleus
(42He2)

Alpha decay mostly occurs for heavy nuclei

Example
238

Pu 23492U + 42He 94

Half-life: 88 years
Energy =5.56 MeV
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Alpha Decay
Very easy to shield

A sheet of paper, skin, or a few cm (~inch) of air will stop an alpha particle

External Hazard: Low Internal Hazard: High

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Alpha Decay
238

Pu144 23492U142 + 94

Parent nucleus 23894Pu144 Daughter Nucleus 23492U142

Often the daughter nucleus is also radioactive and will itself subsequently decay. Decay chains or families (e.g. uranium, thorium decay chains).
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238

Pu 23492U + 94 U 23090Th + 92
90Th

t1/2 = 88 yrs

Decay Chains

234

t1/2 = 2.5 105 yrs t1/2 = 8.0 104 yrs t1/2 = 1.6 103 yrs t1/2 = 3.8 days t1/2 = 3.1 min t1/2 = 27 min t1/2 = 20 min t1/2 = 160 s
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230

22688Ra + 21884Po +

226

Ra 22286Rn + 88 Po 21482Pb + 84
214

222 Rn 86 218

Pb 21483Bi + 82 21484Po +

214 Bi 83 214

Po 21082Pb + 84

Decay Chains
Pb 21083Bi + 82 21084Po +

210

t1/2 = 22 yrs t1/2 = 5 days t1/2 = 138 days

210 Bi 83 210

Po 20682Pb + 84
206 82Pb

is STABLE

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Decay Chains
Pu U

Th
Ra Rn

Po
Pb Hg Au

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Beta Decay

A beta-particle is an electron (e) or its anti-particle the positron (e+)

The neutron and the proton are very similar to each other (very closely related). A neutron can change into a proton, or vice versa. When this happens, an energetic electron (or positron) is emitted. -+ np+e This is called beta-decay

pn+

+ e

+
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Beta Decay
In terms of nuclei beta-decay looks like
137 Cs 137 Ba 55 82 56 81

+ e- +

As in the case of alpha decay the daughter nuclei are usually radioactive and will themselves decay. Beta-particles are HARDER to stop Since the electron is lighter than an alpha-particle and carries less charge. Therefore, the range of a beta-particle is greater and it
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Beta-Decay
Beta-particles are HARDER to stop Since the electron is lighter than an alphaparticle and carries less charge. Therefore, the range of a beta-particle is greater and it takes more shielding to stop beta-particles (electrons or positrons) than alpha particles ~ few mm or 1 cm of lead ~ few feet of air
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Gamma-Decay
A beta-decay or alpha-decay typically leaves the daughter nucleus in a highly excited state. To get to the ground state the nucleus (rapidly almost instantly) emits one or more gamma-rays Gamma-rays are a very energetic form of light. More energy and more penetrating than x-rays. No charge Much more penetrating than either alpha or beta. Few inches of Pb, many feet of air
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Gamma-Decay
Gamma-ray energies are characteristic of the nucleus.

Measure the energies identify the nucleus.

(just like atoms or molecules give off characteristic colors of light). Measuring the gamma-ray is by far the best and easiest way to measure what type of radioactive substance you are dealing with.

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Fission
What holds nuclei together? Protons repel each other (opposites attract, like

repel)
Coulomb Force Some other force must hold nuclei together The STRONG FORCE Attractive and Stronger than the Coulomb Force But short range
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Fission
What happens if you have a lot of protons (i.e in a heavy nucleus)? Eventually the Coulomb repulsion will win and the nucleus will fall apart into two smaller (radioactive!!) nuclei.

FISSION
An enormous amount of energy is released.

This energy is utilized in power plants and in fission bombs.

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Fission
The heavy parent nucleus fissions into two lighter fission fragment nuclei

Plus some left over bits energetic neutrons

Example:
252Cf

is a spontaneous fission source

Sometimes this process happens spontaneously sometimes you can poke at the nucleus and induce it to fission 47

Fission Fission Fragments

Are emitted with a huge energy but stop very quickly (very short range).
Are all radioactive nuclei and will decay usually by beta-and gamma-decay
Light fragment

They have a broad

range of masses

Probability

Heavy fragment

Mass

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Induced Fission
Some nuclei can be made to fission when struck by something

Usually the something is a neutron

Example:
235U

+ n fission

Remember in the fission process extra neutrons are released

If some of these strike other 235U nuclei they can induce another fission
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Induced Fission
Chain Reaction
Controlled nuclear power plant exactly one neutron per fission induces another fission.

Uncontrolled nuclear bomb more than one neutron per reaction induces another fission

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What is a Dose of Radiation?

When radiations energy is deposited into our bodys tissues, that is a dose of radiation.

The more energy deposited into the body, the higher the dose.
Rem is a unit of measure for radiation dose. Small doses expressed in mrem = 1/1000 rem. Rad & R (Roentgens) are similar units that are often equated to the Rem.
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From Understanding Radiation, Brooke Buddemeier, LLNL

Typical Doses
Average Dose to US Public from All sources Average Dose to US Public From Natural Sources Average Dose to US Public From Medical Uses 360 mrem/year 300 mrem/year 53 mrem/year

Coal Burning Power Plant

Average dose to US Public from Weapons Fallout Average Dose to US Public From Nuclear Power Occupational Dose Limit for Radiation Workers Coast to coast Airplane roundtrip Chest X ray Dental X ray

0.2 mrem/year
< 1 mrem/year < 0.1 mrem/year 5,000 mrem/yr 5 mrem 8 mrem 10 mrem

Head/neck X ray
Shoe Fitting Fluoroscope (not in use now) CT (head and body)

20 mrem
170 mrem 1,100 mrem
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Therapeutic thyroid treatment (doseUnderstanding Radiation, Brooke Buddemeier, LLNL From to the whole

Types of Exposure & Health Effects

Acute Dose
Large radiation dose in a short period of time Large doses may result in observable health effects Early: Nausea & vomiting Hair loss, fatigue, & medical complications Burns and wounds heal slowly Examples: medical exposures and accidental exposure to sealed sources

Chronic Dose
Radiation dose received over a long period of time Body more easily repairs damage from chronic doses Does not usually result in observable effects Examples: Background Radiation and Internal Deposition

Inhalation
53 From Understanding Radiation, Brooke Buddemeier, LLNL

Dividing Cells are the Most Radiosensitive

Rapidly dividing cells are more susceptible to radiation damage. Examples of radiosensitive cells are
Blood forming cells

The intestinal lining

Hair follicles A fetus
This is why the fetus has a exposure limit (over gestation period) of 500 mrem (or 1/10th of the annual adult limit)
From Understanding Radiation,Brooke Buddemeier, LLNL
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At HIGH Doses, We KNOW Radiation Causes Harm

High Dose effects seen in:
Radium dial painters Early radiologists Atomic bomb survivors Populations near Chernobyl Medical treatments Criticality Accidents

In addition to radiation sickness, increased cancer rates were also evident from high level exposures.
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From Understanding Radiation,Brooke Buddemeier, LLNL

Effects of ACUTE Exposures

Dose (Rads*)
25-50

Effects
First sign of physical effects (drop in white blood cell count)

100

Threshold for vomiting (within a few hours of exposure) ~ 50% die within 60 days (with minimal supportive care) ~50 % die within 60 days (with supportive medical care) ~ 100% die within 30 days

320 - 360

480 - 540 1,000

* For common external exposures 1 Rad ~ 1Rem = 1,000 mrem

56 From Understanding Radiation,Brooke Buddemeier, LLNL

At LOW Doses, We PRESUME Radiation Causes Harm No physical effects have been observed

Although somewhat controversial, this increased risk of cancer is presumed to be proportional to the dose (no matter how small).
The Bad News: The Good News: Radiation is a carcinogen and a mutagen Radiation is a very weak carcinogen and mutagen!

Very Small DOSE = Very Small RISK

From Understanding Radiation Brooke Buddemeier, LLNL 57

Radiation Detectors
Range of Radiation Alpha: Beta: Gamma: Neutron: Small. Smallish Long Very long Shield with a piece of paper Shield with a inch or so of Pb Shield with a few inches of Pb Shield with many inches of parafin

To detect the radiation it has to

a) Get to and b) Get into your detector

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Radiation Detectors
Almost all work on the same general idea When an energetic charged particle passes through matter it will rapidly slow down and lose its energy by interacting with the atoms of the material (detector or body) Mostly with the atomic electrons It will kick these electrons off of the atoms leaving a trail of ionized atoms behind it (like a vapor trail of a jet plane) Radiation detectors use a high voltage and some electronics to measure these vapor trails. They measure a (small) electric current).

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Radiation Detectors
Like a bullet going through something A friction force will slow it down and stop it

Friction
More Charge More friction More Massive More friction More friction Shorter Range

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Radiation Detectors
It has to get into your detector e.g. Alpha . A few inches of air or a piece of paper stops it if your detector is a few feet away, it will not detect the alpha e.g. Alpha if the sides of the detector are too thick the alpha will not get in and will not be detected

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Radiation Detectors
Neutrons and gamma-rays are neutral No charge much less friction much longer range

When they penetrate matter eventually they also will interact somehow (gamma-rays interact via Compton scattering, photoelectic effect or pair production, neutrons will collide with protons in the nuclei) and these interactions produce energetic charged particles.

The detectors are sensitive to these secondary particles.

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Types of detector
Alpha, Beta and Gamma radiation

Film Badges

Gas Counters (Geiger counters)

Scintillators

Solid State Detectors

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Film Badges
Will detect: beta, gamma and neutron

Need to send away and develop the film and then later will tell you what does you received

Used by radiation workers TLC devices similar idea but with real-time readout

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Gas Counters
e.g. Geiger Counters

Will Detect: Alpha, Beta, some gamma

No identification just tells you something is there

With a thin entrance window GM-tube is sensitive to alphas

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Scintillators
Make a flash of light when something interacts Sodium Iodide Cesium Iodide

Will Detect: Alpha (with thin window), beta (with thin window) and gamma. Gives moderate to bad energy information some information on the type of radiation
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Semiconductor Detectors
Germanium Silicon

Will Detect: Gamma rays (also beta and alphas in a laboratory, not in the field)

Excellent energy resolution: Can measure exactly was source you are looking at.

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Spare Transparencies

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Radioactive Decay

When a physical process can happen it will happen. When it is forbidden to happen it just takes a little longer!

When can a nucleus decay?

If a nucleus can decay it will

When there is a lighter nucleus for it to decay into

When this decay is allowed by certain conservation laws .

Conservation of energy Conservation of charge Certain other quantum numbers
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Beta Decay

np+

Various laws must be obeyed, including

1. Conservation of Energy E = mc2 a heavy particle can decay into lighter one(s). The excess energy is turned into kinetic energy of the light particles 2. Conservation of Charge An electron is produced 3. Conservation of Lepton Number a very nebulous particle called a neutrino is also produced
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