CHAPTER EIGHT:

INTEGRATION
TECHNIQUES:
AS IT IS
Released by Krsna Dhenu
September 28, 2002
Edited October 7, 2003
Hare Krsna Hare Krsna Krsna Krsna Hare Hare
Hare Rama Hare Rama Rama Rama Hare Hare
Jaya Sri Sri Radha Vijnanasevara (Lord Krsna, the King of Math and Science)
KRSNA CALCULUS PRESENTS:
WELCOME BACK!!!
Hare Krsna everyone!
Please take a moment to sigh before
moving onto the next slide.
This chapter is rated one of the most
difficult chapters. This contains a great
amount of material.
It is strongly suggested that you do NOT
start this chapter without the strong
backgrounds of derivative, integral,
function behavior, and algebra.
WHAT IS THIS
CHAPTER ABOUT?
Notice when we did derivatives, we only spent one whole
chapter on how to compute the derivative (Chapter 2)
We spent time using Chapter 3 to do real-world examples
using derivatives.
We know how to differentiate ANY function.
Integrals, however, are more difficult, since there are many
rules involved. There is no one method of computing
integrals.
This chapter is completely devoted to different methods of
integration. It is important that you take this chapter nice
and slowly so you can build it in.
Also, you must develop critical thinking in this chapter.
Without it, this chapter will become impossible.
INTEGRATION WHAT
DO WE KNOW SO FAR?
In terms of getting integrals, we know how to do
basic anti-differentiation with power functions,
trig functions and exponential functions.
We started some techniques using u-
substitution to solve integrals. More or less, a
reverse chain rule.
We also did area, volume, and other physical
applications using the definite integral.
This chapter is devoted to the indefinite
integral.

1) U-SUBSTITUTION
REVISITED
Just to freshen your minds,
lets do a u-substitution
problem. There is a little
catch to it
For this problem, it is
preferable to pick u = x+2,
since du can never be in the
denominator.
Use algebra to give a name
for x+1. Since x=u-2, then
x+1 would be u -2+1 or u-1.
After putting everything in,
do the integration.
Note that in the final
answer, the constant 2 does
not need to be there, since
C is more general.
C x x
x x
u u
du
u
du
u
u
dx du
u u x
u x
x u
dx
x
x
+ +
+ +

=
= + = +
=
+ =
+
+
} }
}
2 ln
2 ln 2
ln
1
1
1
1 1 2 1
2
2
2
1
PRODUCT RULE
FLASHBACK
Remember back in Chapter 2, we
mentioned the product rule? Looked like
the following
vdu udv uv d
dx
du
v
dx
dv
u
dx
uv d
+ =
+ =
) (
) (
In regular form.




Or differential form.
2) INTEGRATION BY
PARTS
If you play around
with the differentials,
you will get the
following.

If you integrate both
sides, you get what is
known as the
INTEGRATION BY
PARTS FORMULA
} }
} }
=
=
=
vdu uv udv
vdu uv d udv
vdu uv d udv
) (
) (
EXAMPLE#1
Integrate x*e
x
dx.
STEP 1:
Pick your u and dv.
TRICK: L.I.P.E.T. This determines
what u should be initially. Logarithm,
Inverse, Power, Exponential, and Trig
functions.
In this problem, a power function and
an exponential function are present.
Since power (P) comes before
exponential (E), u should equal x.
From the u, find du. From the dv, find
v.
Therefore u=x, then du=dx! Dont
forget that.
Simply plug this into the parts
formula.
dx e dv
e v
dx du
x u
dx xe
x
x
x
=
=
=
=
}
EXAMPLE#1
I = integral to be
solved.
Plug in u, v, du, and dv.
If the integral on the
right looks easy to
compute, then simply
integrate it.
Dont forget the +C!
C e xe I
dx e xe I
vdu uv udv I
x x
x x
+ =
=
= =
}
} }
EXAMPLE#2
Integrate the function


}
xdx e
x
sin
EXAMPLE#2
Step 1: Find the u and
dv:
An exponential and a
trig function is
present.
E (exponential) comes
before T (trig).
Use the exponential
function for u. x v
xdx dv
dx e du
e u
xdx e
x
x
x
cos
sin
sin
=
=
=
=
}
EXAMPLE#2
Step#2: Plug u, du, v and
dv into the formula
Simplify
If the last integral is easy
to compute, compute it.
However, it is not easy. In
fact, we are in more mess
than we started in. Looks
like we have to use the
integration by parts rule
again.
}
}
} }
+ =
=
= =
xdx e x e I
I xdx e
vdu uv udv I
x x
x
cos cos
sin
EXAMPLE#2
Use integration by parts again.
Since there is an exponential
function, call that u. After
finding u, du, v, and dv, plug those
values in the Parts equation and
see what happens

We have even more of a
messbut wait! The integral of
e
x
sin(x) is supposed to be equal to
I (the integral we wanted to solve
for in the first place!!).
So we can replace the integral of
e
x
sin(x) with I and add it to both
sides.
You will see that it works out.

Always add the constant
( )
C
x e x e
I
x e x e I
I I x e x e I I
xdx e I
xdx e x e x e I
xdx dv
x v
dx e du
e u
xdx e x e I
x x
x x
x x
x
x x x
x
x
x x
+
+
=
+ =
+ + = +
=
+ =
=
=
=
=
+ =
}
}
}
2
sin cos
sin cos 2
sin cos
sin
sin sin cos
cos
sin
cos cos
RULE OF THUMB WITH
INTEGRATION BY PARTS
PROBLEMS
Always pick the right u. If the problem is
getting really difficult, maybe you picked the
wrong u. Just like in u-substitution. You had to
pick the right u to work with the problem.
If the integral on the right does not look easy to
compute, then do integration by parts for that
integral only.
If you see the resulting integral looks like the
integral you are asked to solve for in the first
place, then simply combine the two like integrals
and use algebra to solve for the integral.
3) TRIGONOMETRIC
INTEGRALS
You will always get the situation of funny
combination of integrals. Trig functions
are as such that you can translate from
one function to a function with just sines
and cosines. For example, you can always
write tan, sec, csc, cot in terms of either
sine or cosine.
Remember the following identities from
PRE-CALCULUS!!!
IMPORTANT
IDENTITIES
( )
( ) x x
x x
x x
x x
x x
x x x x x
x x x
2 cos 1
2
1
sin
2 cos 1
2
1
cos
csc 1 cot
sec 1 tan
1 sin cos
sin cos sin 2 1 1 cos 2 2 cos
cos sin 2 2 sin
2
2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2 2 2
=
+ =
= +
= +
= +
= = =
=
PROCEDURE
Well Im afraid to say it, but there
is really no procedure or real
template in attacking these problems
except proper planning.
This takes a great deal of practice
EXAMPLE# 1
Given:
Best thing to do is to
break the cosine
function down to a 2
nd

degree multiplied by a
1
st
degree cosine.
Since cos
2
x=1-sin
2
x,
you can replace it.
Use u-substitution to
solve the integral.
( )
( )
C
x
x
u
u
du u
xdx du
x u
xdx x
xdx x
xdx
+ =

=
=

}
}
}
}
3
sin
sin
3
1
cos
sin
cos sin 1
cos cos
cos
3 3
2
2
2
3
EXAMPLE#2
Given
Break the 4
th
degree
sine to two 2
nd
degre
sines.
Use the sin
2
x
theorem.
Expand the binomial
squared.
For the cos
2
2x, use
the cos
2
x theorem.
Simplify
Dont forget the +C!
( )( )
( )
( )
C
x x
x
dx
x
x
dx
x
x
dx x x
dx x dx
x
dx x x
xdx
+ +
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
+
=
|
.
|

\
|

}
}
}
} }
}
}
32
4 sin
4
2 sin
8
3
2
4 cos
2
3
2 cos 2
4
1
2
4 cos
2
1
2 cos 2 1
4
1
2 cos 2 cos 2 1
4
1
2 cos 1
4
1
2
2 cos 1
sin sin
sin
2
2
2
2 2
4
EXAMPLE #3
Whenever you see a
tan, sec, csc, or cot,
always convert them
to sines and cosines.
This way, you can
cancel or combine
whenever necessary.
In this case,
tan
2
x=sin
2
x/cos
2
x. We
are also lucky that the
cos
2
x cancels.
Using the sin
2
x
theorem, we can
simply integrate.
C
x
x
xdx
xdx
dx
x
x
x
xdx x
+
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
}
}
}
}
2
2 sin
2 cos 1
sin
cos
sin
cos
tan cos
2
2
2
2
2 2
NOTE ABOUT
TRIGONOMETRIC
INTEGRALS
There is no real rule for such integrals.
But always remember:
1) If there is a mix of sines and cosines,
break them up until they resemble an
easier form
2) Use any trig theorem that would be
relevant to make a problem simpler.
3) Convert everything to sines or cosines.
4) TRIGONOMETRIC
SUBSTITUTION
Remember when we took derivatives of
inverse trigonometric functions, we commonly
dealt with sums or differences of squares.
Similarly, integrating sums of differences of
square will lead us to the inverse trig
functions.
However we need a stepping stone to
integrate such functions.

GENERAL PROCEDURE
u
u
u
sec
tan
sin
a u
a u
a u
=
=
=
2 2
2 2
2 2
a u
u a
u a

Given that a is a constant, and u is a function, then follow the

THETA?
Since we are working with a
substitution, theta would be the
variable to use subsitution
Doesnt make sense? Lets do an
example problem
EXAMPLE #1
Initially a very bad looking
problem
Focus on the denominator,
inside the radical, you have 9-
x
2
. In effect, that is a
2
-u
2
, a
being 3 and u being x. If a
2
-u
2

is used, then according to the
table in the last slide, we
would use u=a sinu.

You already found a name for
x. You need to give a name for
dx. Differentiate x with
respect to u. Solve for dx.
}

dx
x
x
2
2
9
u u
u
u
d dx
x
a u
a
x u
cos 3
sin 3
sin
3
=
=
=
=
=
EXAMPLE #1
Here is the original
problem
With the
substitutions of x and
dx, here is the original
problem
Simplify a little
Pull out constants
when needed.
( )
( )
} }
}
}
}

u
u
u u
u u
u
u
u u
u
u
u u
u
u
d d
d
d
dx
x
x
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
sin 1
cos sin
9 cos
sin 1
sin 9
cos 3
sin 9 9
sin 9
cos 3
sin 3 9
sin 3
9
EXAMPLE #1
The denominator is
actually cos
2
x,
according to the trig
theorem. (Memorize
them!)
Simplify
Integrate

We have our answer in
terms of u!!! We need
it in terms of x!

( )
|
.
|

\
|

=
=

} }
} }
}
2
2 sin
9
2 cos 1 9 sin 9
cos
cos sin
9
cos
cos sin
9
sin 1
cos sin
9
2
2
2
2
2
2
u
u
u u u u
u
u
u u
u
u
u u
u
u
u u
d d
d d
d
EXAMPLE #1
Dont forget what
we said earlier.
That x=3 sin u. We
need to know what
u is in order to find
out the solution in
terms of x.
9
9 2
9
3
1
3
2
cos sin 2 2 sin
cos 9
3
1
cos
9
9
1 cos
9
1 cos sin
3
arcsin
sin
3
sin 3
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
x x
x
x
x x
x
x
x
x
x x
x
x
x

= |
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
=
=

= +
= +
|
.
|

\
|
=
=
=
u u u
u
u
u
EXAMPLE #1
Simply replace all
the q expressions
with x expressions.
Simplify
Add constant!!

Sighs!! Were
finished!!! C x x
x
x x x
+
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|

2
2
9
3
arcsin 9
9
9
3
arcsin 9
2
2 sin
9
u
u
That was a LOT of work!!!
Here are trig substitution steps
1) Find the correct equality statement
using the table.
2) Make the proper substitutions.
Remember to have a substitute for x as
well as dx.
3) Integrate in terms of u.
4) Convert all u terms to x terms.
5) RATIONAL
FUNCTIONS
Of course, there will always be functions
in the form of a ratio of two functions.
Two integrate most rational functions, the
method of partial fractions come into
play.
<<Break from Calculus entering Algebra
Territory>>
PARTIAL FRACTIONS
This means you take a fraction and
break it down into a sum of many
fractions.
This way, we can add up the integrals
of simpler easier fractions.
EXAMPLE
Given
The denominator could be
factored to (x+5)(x-2).
This way we could have new
denominators for the two
new fractions.
Add these new fractions
and distribute. Make sure
you bring all x terms
together, as well as
bringing all the constants
together.
( )( )
( ) ( )
( )( )
( )( ) ( )( )
( )
( )( ) 2 5
5 2
2 5
5 2
2 5
5 2
2 5
5 2
2 5 2 5
9
10 3
9
2
+
+ + +
+
+ + +
=
+
+ +
+
+ +

+
+
=
+

+

}
x x
B A B A x
x x
B A Bx Ax
x x
B Bx A Ax
x x
x B x A
x
B
x
A
x x
x
dx
x x
x
EXAMPLE
The coefficient of x on the
right side is 1. In order to
keep the equality true, the
coefficient of x on the left
side should also equal 1.
A+B=1
Same thing with the constant.
If the equality holds true,
then -2A+5B must equal -9.
To solve for A and B, you use
methods from algebra.
<System of linear equations>.
If you multiply A+B=1 by 2,
you will see that B=-1.
Therefore A=2.

( )
( )( ) ( )( )
1
9 5 2
1
2 5
9
2 5
5 2
=
= +
= +
+

=
+
+ + +
B
B A
B A
x x
x
x x
B A B A x
EXAMPLE
Since A=2 and B=-1,
we can simply plug
them in.

And integrate!!!

And the final
answer!!
C x x
dx
x
dx
x
dx
x x
x
B
x
A
+ +

+
+
} }
}
2 ln 5 ln 2
2
1
5
1
2
2
1
5
2
2 5
ANOTHER EXAMPLE
Given
Note: If the
numerator has a
higher degree than
the denominator, then
do long polynomial
division.
If you actually do the
long division, you will
get x-1-1/(x+1). This is
very easy to integrate.
C x x
x
dx
x
x dx
x
x
dx
x
x
+ +
+
=
+
+
} }
}
1 ln
2
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
POINTERS OF PARTIAL
FRACTIONS
1) Check if the top degree is bigger
than the bottom. If so, perform long
division
2) If the denominator is factorable,
then assume that the denominators
of the new fractions will be those
factors.
6) QUADRATIC
DENOMINATOR
PROBLEMS
This is really no different than
trigonometric substitution.
Strictly rational functions with a quadratic
denominator that cannot be reduced.
To make the denominator easier to work
with, you must complete the square
COMPLETING THE
SQUARE
Given problem:
Look at the denominator. Take
the coefficient of x and divide
it by 2.
Take this result and square it.
4/2 =2
2
=4
This result would form a
perfect square when added to
x
2
+4x.
The perfect square would be
(x+2)
2
.
However, we have a 5. If you
add and subtract 4, combining
5 and -4 will yield 1.
You have a form of u
2
+a
2
! Time
for trig substitution!
( )
( )
} }
}
}
+ +

=
+ + +

+ + + +

+ +

dx
x
x
dx
x x
x
dx
x x
x
dx
x x
x
1 2
2 3
1 4 4
2 3
4 4 5 4
2 3
5 4
2 3
2 2
2
2
EXAMPLE
Since we have
u
2
+a
2
, we must use
the fact of
u=a*tan(u).
u=x+2 while a=1
Substitute the
values in
appropriate spots.
( )
( )
( )
}
}
+

=
=
= +
=
=
+ =
+ +

dx
d dx
x
x
a u
a
x u
dx
x
x
1 tan
2 2 tan 3
sec
2 tan
tan 2
tan
1
2
1 2
2 3
2
2
2
u
u
u u
u
u
u
EXAMPLE (work)
( )
( )
u u
u u
u
u
u
u u
u
u
u u
u
u
u u
u
u
8 2 cos
4
3
8 2 sin
2
3
8
sec
tan
3
sec
sec
8 tan 3
sec
1 tan
2 6 tan 3
sec
1 tan
2 2 tan 3
2
2
2
2
2
2
2

+

+

}
}
}
}
}
d
d
d
d
d
( )
( ) C x
x x
x x
x x
x x
x
x
+ +
|
.
|

\
|
+ +

+ +
=
=
=
+ +
= + +
= + +
= +
= +
2 arctan 8
5 4
1
2
3
8 2 cos
4
3
1
5 4
1
2 2 cos
1 cos 2 2 cos
cos
5 4
1
sec 5 4
sec 1 2
sec 1 tan
tan 2
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
2
2
2 2
u u
u
u u
u
u
u
u u
u
POINTERS
1) Make the denominator into one of
the three forms that allows trig
substitution by the use of completing
the square.
2) Follow rules of trig substitution.
7) IMPROPER
INTEGRALS
This is not an integral evaluating
technique.
An improper integral is basically an
integral that has infinity as its limits
or has a discontinuity within its
limits.
IMPROPER INTEGRALS
}

0
dx e
x
}

+
2
3
2
1
dx
x
Examples of improper integrals:
IMPROPER INTEGRALS
With limits of infinity, just
use a letter to replace the
infinity and treat as a
limit.
And integrate as if nothing
ever happened
Dont forget to use the
limit.
Amazing! As we start from
0 to infinity, we get closer
to 1 square unit of area!
We say that it converges
to 1.
} }

=
b
x
b
x
dx e dx e
0 0
lim
| | ( )
( ) ( ) 1 1 0 1 lim
lim lim
lim
0
0
0 0
= =
=
=

} }
b
b
b
b
b
x
b
b
x
b
x
e
e e e
dx e dx e
IMPROPER INTEGRALS
Since we have a discontinuity in
this function at x=-2. To take this
into account, we must split the
integral into two parts. In addition,
we cannot go exactly -2, but we
have to get there pretty darn
close. Therefore, we must use the
one-sided limits from Chapter 1 to
represent this. Two integrals: one
from -3 to a little before -2, and a
little after -2 to 2.
Other than that, simply integrate


Notice how we got an answer that
dont exist!! D.N.E (does not exist)!
This means that this integral
diverges. Also if an integral goes to
infinity, it diverges.
( ) | | ( ) | |
( ) | | ( ) ( ) | |
. . . 4 ln 0 0 ln 4 ln 1 ln 0 ln
2 2 ln 2 2 ln lim 1 ln 2 2 ln lim
2 ln lim 2 ln lim
2
1
lim
2
1
lim
2
2
0
2
3
0
2
2
0
2
3
0
2
2 0
2
3 0
e n d
h h
x x
dx
x
dx
x
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h h
h
h
= + = +
+ + + + +
+ + +
+
+
+
+

+


} }
} } }
+


+
+
+
=
+
2
2 0
2
3 0
2
3
2
1
lim
2
1
lim
2
1
h h
h
h
dx
x
dx
x
dx
x
POINTERS OF
IMPROPER INTEGRALS
Remember to identify all the points of
discontinuity. Remember to use limits
before and after the points of
discontinuity.
If you have infinity as your limit,
remember to use infinity as your limit.
Other than that, use ALL of the previous
techniques of integration mentioned.
FUNCTIONS WITHOUT
AN ANTIDERIVATIVE
Besides three more chapters, this is the last of the single variable
calculus. That is to say: y=f(x) in 2-dimensional x,y graph.
Before moving on, I must admit even though all continuous functions
have derivatives, not all continuous functions have simple integrals in
terms of elementary functions.
Elementary functions are adding, subtracting, multiplication, division,
power, rooting, exponential, logarithmic, trigonometric, all of their
inverses as well as combinations or composition functions. Basically, all
the functions you ever used were composed of elementary functions.
Some functions do not have elementary antiderivatives. For example
the classic (sin x)/x problem.
No matter what method you tried. Neither by u-substitution, integration
by parts, trig substitution, partial fractions, or even guess and check will
get you an antiderivative.
From my experience from differential equations class last year, the
integral of sin(x)/x is Si(x) also known as the sine integral!
YOU DONT NEED TO KNOW THAT!!!!
OUTTA THIS WORLD
FUNCTIONS!!!!!!!
You will be dealing with functions like
erf(x), Si(x), Ci(x), Shi(x), Chi(x),
FresnelS(x), and FresnelC(x). Take
their derivatives and youll get
regular sane functions. AAHHH!!!
HARI BOL!!!!
SUMMARY
Actually, for once, looking at the length and material of this
chapter. I am quite amazed to say that I have no words to
summarize this chapter. There has been so many methods
of integration. Namely u-substitution, integration by parts,
how to deal with trig integrals, trig substitution, partial
fractions, quadratic denominators, and improper integrals.
All I can say is that review this material over again!!!
Like I said previously, there is no set way to do these
problems. There are more than one way of doing it.
You have to know what to do when which problem arrives at
you.
CREDITS
Dr. A. Moslow
Dr. W. Menasco
Mr. G. Chomiak
Calculus and Early Transcendental
Functions 5
th
Ed.
Finney Calculus
Single-Variable Calculus (SUNY Buffalo)
Princeton Review AP Calculus AB

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END OF CHAPTER
EIGHT
jaya sri krsna caitanya prabhu nityananda
sri advaita gadadhara sri vasadi gaura
bhakta vrnda
hare krsna hare krsna krsna krsna hare
hare
hare rama hare rama rama rama hare hare