Sampling:

Design and Procedures

Sampling
The researcher generally seeks to draw conclusions about large
number of individuals- i.e. population or universe.

Since researchers operate with limited time, energy, and economic
resources, they rarely study each and every member of a given
population.

Instead, researchers study only a sample that is a small number of
observations from the population.

Through the sampling process, the researchers seek to generalize from
a sample (a small group) to the entire population from which it was
taken (a large group).

11-3
Basic Concepts in Samples and Sampling
Population: the entire group under study as
defined by research objectives. Sometimes
called the universe.

Researchers define populations in specific terms
such as heads of households, individual person
types, families, types of retail outlets, etc.
Population geographic location and time of study
are also considered.

11-4


Basic Concepts in Samples and Sampling
Sample: a subset of the population that should
represent the entire group
Sample unit: the basic level of
investigationconsumers, store managers, shelf-
facings, teens, etc. The research objective
should define the sample unit
Census: an accounting of the complete
population
11-5
Reasons for Taking a Sample
Practical considerations such as cost and
population size

Inability of researcher to analyze large quantities
of data potentially generated by a census

Samples can produce sound results if proper
rules are followed for the draw
11-6
Basic Sampling Classifications
Probability samples: ones in which members of
the population have a known chance (probability)
of being selected

Non-probability samples: instances in which the
chances (probability) of selecting members from
the population are unknown
11-7
Classification of Sampling Techniques
Fig. 11.2
Sampling Techniques
Nonprobability
Sampling Techniques
Probability
Sampling Techniques
Convenience
Sampling
Judgmental
Sampling
Quota
Sampling
Snowball
Sampling
Systematic
Sampling
Stratified
Sampling
Cluster
Sampling
Other Sampling
Techniques
Simple Random
Sampling
11-8
Nonprobability Sampling
Techniques
11-9
Convenience Sampling
Convenience sampling attempts to obtain
a sample of convenient elements. Often,
respondents are selected because they
happen to be in the right place at the right
time.

use of students, and members of social
organizations
people on the street interviews
11-10
Judgmental Sampling
Judgmental sampling is a form of convenience
sampling in which the population elements are
selected based on the judgment of the researcher.

11-11
Quota Sampling
Quota sampling may be viewed as two-stage restricted judgmental
sampling.
The first stage consists of developing control categories, or quotas,
of population elements.
In the second stage, sample elements are selected based on
convenience or judgment.

Population Sample
composition composition
Control
Characteristic Percentage Percentage Number
Sex
Male 48 48 480
Female 52 52 520
____ ____ ____
100 100 1000
11-12
Snowball Sampling
In snowball sampling, an initial group of
respondents is selected, usually at random.

After being interviewed, these respondents are
asked to identify others who belong to the target
population of interest.
Subsequent respondents are selected based on
the referrals.
11-13
Probability
Sampling Techniques
Random sampling gives each and every member of
population an equal chance of being selected for the
sample.

One way to conduct a simple random sample is to assign a
number to each element in the population, write these
number on individual slips of paper, toss them into a hat,
and draw the required member of slip (the sample size, n)
from the hat.

Sometimes the elements of the population are already numbered. For
example population of drivers have driving license number, all
employees of a firm have employee number and all university Student
have student card number.
Simple Random Sampling
11-15
Simple Random Sampling
11-16
Systematic Sampling
The sample is chosen by selecting a random starting
point and then picking every ith element in
succession from the sampling frame.

The sampling interval, i, is determined by dividing the
population size N by the sample size n and rounding
to the nearest integer.

For example, there are 100,000 elements in the
population and a sample of 1,000 is desired. In this
case the sampling interval, i, is 100. A random
number between 1 and 100 is selected. If, for
example, this number is 23, the sample consists of
elements 23, 123, 223, 323, 423, 523, and so on.
11-17
Systematic Sampling
11-18
This method is used when the population
distribution of items is skewed. It allows us
to draw a more representative sample.
Hence if there are more of certain type of
item in the population the sample has more
of this type and if there are fewer of another
type, there are fewer in the sample.
Stratified Sampling

A stratified random sample is obtained by dividing the
population into more homogeneous groups or strata from
which simple random samples are then taken. Examples of
criteria for separating a population into strata are:

1. Sex : male, female
2. Age: under 20, 21-30, 31-40, 41-50, 51-60, over 60
3. Household income: under Rs. 8,000, Rs. 8,000-
19,999, Rs.20,000-50,000, over Rs. 50,000

Stratified Sampling
11-20
Stratified Sampling

A cluster sample is a simple random sample of group or
clusters of elements.

Suppose we want to estimate the average annual
household income in a large city.

A less expensive alternative would be to let each block
within the city represent a cluster. By reducing the distance,
cluster sampling reduces the cost.
Cluster Sampling
11-22
Cluster Sampling
Sampling Error
Sampling error is an error that we expect to occur when we
have a statement about a population that is based only on
the observation contained in a sample taken from the
population.

We can use statistical inference to estimate the mean of
the population, if we are willing to accepts less than 100%
accuracy. The difference between the true (unknown)
value of the population mean and its sample estimate is
the sampling error.

Then only way we can reduce the expected size of this
error is to take a larger sample.
Sampling Error
Population
70 80 93
86 85 90
56 52 67
40 78 57
89 49 48
99 72 30
96 94
=
96 40 72
99 86 96
56 56 49
52 67 56



Sample A Sample B Sample C
Final Examination Grade
Sampling Error
75 . 75 = X 25 . 62 = X 25 . 68 = X
Final Examination Grade
96 40 72
99 86 96
56 56 49
52 67 56
303 249 273



Population
Sample A Sample B Sample C
70 80 93
86 85 90
56 52 67
40 78 57
89 49 48
99 72 30
96 94
= 71.55
Non Sampling Error

Non sampling error is more serious, because
taking a larger sample wont diminish the size, or
the possibility of occurrence, of this error. Even
census can contain non sampling error.

Non sampling errors are reporting error, non
response error, data entry error.
Sampling Distribution of Mean
Consider the population created by throwing
a fair die many times, with the random
variable x indicating the number of spots
showing on any one throw.

Find the probability distribution of the
random variable x. Its mean and Variance.


11-28
Probability distribution of X

x 1 2 3 4 5 6
P(x) 1/6 1/6 1/6 1/6 1/6 1/6
Mean and Variance of X
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92 . 2 =


Sampling Distribution of Mean


X X
All Samples of Size Two and Their Means

Sample

Sample
X
Sample
Sampling Distribution of Mean


X X
All Samples of Size Two and Their Means

Sample

1, 1 1.0 3, 1 2.0 5, 1 3.0
1, 2 1.5 3, 2 2.5 5, 2 3.5
1, 3 2.0 3, 3 3.0 5, 3 4.0
1, 4 2.5 3, 4 3.5 5, 4 4.5
1, 5 3.0 3, 5 4.0 5, 5 5.0
1, 6 3.5 3, 6 4.5 5, 6 5.5
2, 1 1.5 4, 1 2.5 6, 1 3.5
2, 2 2.0 4, 2 3.0 6, 2 4.0
2, 3 2.5 4, 3 3.5 6, 3 4.5
2, 4 3.0 4, 4 4.0 6, 4 5.0
2, 5 3.5 4, 5 4.5 6, 5 5.5
2, 6 4.0 4, 6 5.0 6, 6 6.0
Sample
X
Sample

Sampling Distribution of

P( )
1.0 1/36
1.5 2/36
2.0 3/36
2.5 4/36
3.0 5/36
3.5 6/36
4.0 5/36
4.5 4/36
5.0 3/36
5.5 2/36
6.0 1/36

X
X
X
Calculate the mean and
variance of this sampling Distribution.
Mean and Variance of the sampling Distribution



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1
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=
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92 . 2
2
= o 46 . 1
2
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n
x
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2
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.o o =


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11-34
Central Limit Theorem

1. The random variable x has a distribution
(which may or may not be normal) with mean
and standard deviation o.
2. Samples all of the same size n are randomly
selected from the population of x values.

Given:
11-35
Central Limit Theorem

Conclusions:
11-36
Central Limit Theorem
1. The distribution of sample x will, as the
sample size increases, approach a normal
distribution.



Conclusions:
11-37
Central Limit Theorem
1. The distribution of sample x will, as the
sample size increases, approach a normal
distribution.
2. The mean of the sample means will be the
population mean .



Conclusions:
11-38
Central Limit Theorem
1. The distribution of sample x will, as the
sample size increases, approach a normal
distribution.
2. The mean of the sample means will be the
population mean .
3. The standard deviation of the sample means
will approach o/ .


n
Conclusions:
11-39
Practical Rules Commonly Used:
1. For samples of size n larger than 30, the
distribution of the sample means can be
approximated reasonably well by a normal
distribution. The approximation gets better as
the sample size n becomes larger.
2. If the original population is itself normally
distributed, then the sample means will be
normally distributed for any sample size n
(not just the values of n larger than 30).
11-40
Notation
the mean of the sample means

x
=
11-41
Notation
the mean of the sample means


the standard deviation of sample mean

x
=
o
x
=
o
n
11-42
Notation
the mean of the sample means


the standard deviation of sample mean

(often called standard error of the mean)

x
=
o
x
=
o
n
11-43
Example
A population consists of the five numbers
2,3,6,8, and 11. Consider all possible samples of
size 2 that can be drawn with replacement from
this population.

Find (a) the mean of the population,
(b) the standard deviation of the population,
(c) the mean of the sampling distribution of
means, and
(d) the standard deviation of the sampling
distribution of means (i.e., the standard
error of means).