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Water is not normally pure !

Substances become dissolved in water as a result of: - gases in the air dissolving in rain droplets - water running over land, dissolving rocks etc. - water passing through living organisms - deliberate addition (health, water purification) What will dissolve in water ? Many gases are soluble Most ionic compounds are soluble Some molecular (covalent) substances dissolve in water but most dont. Making pure water Pure water can be produced by distillation of tap water, sea water etc.
A large amount of energy is needed for distillation, and as a result this is expensive. The distilled water used in laboratories is produced in this way, and is not suitable for drinking as it does not contain the minerals we need for our health.

Pure mineral water: none of this is H2O !

Dissolved oxygen in rivers and oceans Dissolved oxygen is essential for wildlife living in water to respire. Warmer water contains less dissolved oxygen. Salmon, for example need to live in very cold water. Hot water from the cooling towers of power stations may have no chemical pollution, but it increases the temperature of the river water, decreasing the dissolved oxygen. This is THERMAL POLLUTION. Dissolved carbon dioxide in oceans Oceans act as reservoirs for dissolved carbon dioxide, keeping down the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere (remember the carbon cycle ?). When oceans get warmer, less CO2 can be dissolved, so it ends up in the atmosphere. Increased atmospheric CO2 increases global warming, increasing the temperature of the oceans

Dissolved carbon dioxide in rivers Virtually insoluble rocks such as limestone only dissolve when rivers flow over them because carbon dioxide from the air dissolves in the water, making it acidic. The acidic water reacts with the limestone, producing calcium ions and hydrogencarbonate ions in the water.

Hard Water
Many people live in hard water areas, and as a result their tap water has different properties to that of people living in soft water areas. Hard water contains dissolved calcium ions, Ca2+(aq) and/or magnesium ions, Mg2+(aq). These ions dissolve in the water when streams and rivers run over rocks (such as limestone or dolomite) containing calcium or magnesium compounds.

There are two types of hard water:


PERMANENT HARD WATER - formed when water dissolves sulphate rocks e.g. gypsum (calcium sulphate). Key point: This hardness cannot be removed by boiling the water.

TEMPORARY HARD WATER - formed when water dissolves carbonate rocks, e.g. limestone (calcium carbonate). These virtually insoluble rocks only dissolve because carbon dioxide from the air dissolves in the water, making it acidic.

CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) Ca2+(aq) + 2HCO3-(aq)


Key point: This hardness can be removed by boiling the water, but this uses a lot of energy (= expensive).

What does hard water do ? 1) forms stalagmites and stalactites in caves As the water evaporates it leaves the dissolved ions as solid deposits 2) temporary hard water leaves a layer of scale behind when boiled in kettles, pipes and boilers Problems: - pipes can block up - heating elements coated with scale are less efficient When we boil temporary hard water the hydrogencarbonate ions are decomposed: heat

2HCO3-(aq)

CO32-(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

The carbonate ions formed then react with the calcium or magnesium ions present to form scale. CO32-(aq) + Ca2+(aq) CaCO3(s) 3) scum is formed when both types of hard water react with soap, this prevents it from forming a lather. Problems: - more soap needs to be used (expensive) - scum makes sinks and baths harder to clean hardness

Ca2+(aq) + sodium stearate calcium stearate + Na+(aq)


soap scum

Measuring the hardness of water We may want to measure how hard a water sample is. To do this we need to measure the volume of soap or detergent that needs to be added before a permanent lather can be formed. This method is best for comparing different water samples. We can use a burette to measure how much soap can be added before a lather will form.

Benefits of hard water Dissolved calcium and magnesium ions are minerals valuable to our health. We need to drink these in our water which is why we drink tap water or mineral water, not distilled (pure) water. - Calcium ions help in the development of strong bones and teeth - Some evidence suggests hard water reduces heart disease

Soft Water
Soft water does not contain dissolved calcium or magnesium ions. It readily forms a lather with soap. This makes using soft water less expensive for washing, because we need to use less soap but it is less healthy to drink.

How can we make hard water soft ? Scum is not a problem when washing clothes as modern detergents do not produce scum in hard water. They are called soapless detergents. For many other industrial processes, soft water is important. Hard water could produce scale in boilers, making them more expensive to run, and can also interfere with chemical processes such as dyeing. Temporary hard water can be softened by boiling it. We looked at the chemistry of this a couple of pages ago. Permanently hard water is softened by removing the calcium and magnesium ions. There are two methods: Method 1 Washing Soda The carbonate ions in washing soda react with the calcium (and magnesium) ions that make water hard, forming a precipitate of insoluble calcium (and magnesium) carbonate.

Mg2+(aq)
hardness

+ CO32-(aq)
from washing soda

MgCO3(s)
precipitate

Precipitates are solid, so since the Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions are no longer in the water they cannot react with the soap or detergent, so scum doesnt form.

Method 2 Ion Exchange Domestic water softening units, and dishwashers contain water softening systems using ion exchange columns. The column contains sodium ions which are exchanged for the calcium and magnesium ions as the water flows through. The Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions stick to the resin beads in the column, releasing Na+ ions into the water, so it emerges soft. Once all the sodium ions in the column have been exchanged it needs to be recharged. The resin is washed with a solution containing sodium ions (e.g. sodium chloride) to get the calcium and magnesium ions off and replace them with sodium ions. This is why water softeners and dishwashers must be kept topped up with salt.

1) hard water enters the column

2) calcium and magnesium ions stick to the resin beads, releasing the sodium ions into the water

3) soft water, containing some sodium ions, leaves the column

Water Treatment
Water of the correct quality is essential for life. Drinking water must have sufficiently low levels of dissolved salts and microbes. Something like 1 billion people worldwide are still without safe water. We get water from two sources:

rivers and reservoirs

boreholes

Water of the correct quality is produced by: 1) Choosing an appropriate source - upstream of pollution sources - from boreholes where the rocks have acted as a natural filter

2) Passing the water through filter beds to remove any solids 3) Sterilising the water to kill any microorganisms this is done by adding chlorine.

Sedimentation

Filtration

Disinfection

Using filter jugs in the home to improve the taste and quality of water The water passes through a filter cartridge which normally contains three components.

Activated carbon reduces the level of chlorine, pesticides and other organic impurities Ion exchange resin removes calcium, magnesium, lead, copper and aluminium ions (softening the water) Silver discourages the growth of bacteria in the filter The filter cartridge needs to be changed every few weeks.
Adding chlorine to water Chlorine is added to kill harmful microbes that live in water (both tap water and swimming pool water), but scientists carefully monitor its effects: - chlorine can react with harmless organic molecules in water and form toxic products - some people believe that adding chlorine to water is a risk to their health - using ozone to kill microbes e.g. in swimming pool water is an alternative method - most people believe that the benefits of chlorinating water outweigh the risks.
Researchers claim to have found chlorine to be one of the causes in rising numbers of people with food allergies.

Adding fluoride to water Flouride compounds are added to the water supply in some places to help protect teeth from decay. There is much debate over whether this should happen: - too much fluoride can cause fluorosis, linked to weakened bones and bone cancer - some studies show fluorine affecting the brain and causing learning difficulties - fluoridation of water reduces cavities in teeth by 30% - it protects people with poor dental hygiene, or who dont use a fluoride toothpaste - fluoridation could protect from some types of heart disease - is it ethically wrong to give people a treatment they have not consented to ? (right to choose)

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