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Nuclei

which are less stable then others may decay into smaller more stable nuclei The faster the nuclei decay, the more active the source The number of decays per second is measured in Becquerels (Bq) 1 decay per second means 1 Bq

Radioactive

particles are emitted from unstable nuclei in a random process Atoms which do this are radioactive There are three particles which nuclei may emit when decaying; Alpha (), Beta () and Gamma ()

Alpha

radiation is a release of an alpha particle during nuclear decay The alpha particle is a helium nucleus ( 2 neutrons and 2 protons

Beta

radiation involves the emission of high-energy electrons from the nucleus. It happens when a neutron in the nucleus turns into a proton, and electron, and a particle called an antineutrino

Gamma

radiation is emitted when a nucleus loses energy. Gamma radiation takes the form of photons (which have no rest mass, and no charge).

You can write down nuclear changes as nuclear equations: The numbers in the top row must be balanced on each side of equation, because the number of nucleons will not change. (For example, you could get 231 on the left and 227 + 4 for an alpha emission, and 231 on the left and 231 + 0 on the right for beta emission.) The numbers on the lower row must be balanced on each side of the equation, because the total electrical charge will stay unchanged.

Nucleus

loses 2 protons and 2 neutrons. Nucleon number goes down by four. 234 Ra Eg. 23892U -> + 90 2He

Neutron

goes to a proton. ->


238 93

Eg.
23892 0 e -1

Np

Nucleus

doesnt change. The * symbolises

energy.
238 92U*

->

238

92 U

Gamma

Ionising

radiation is invisible to the naked eye, but it affects photographic plates They can also be detected using a Geiger Muller tube The ionizing radiation creates ions and electrons within the tube A voltage between the electrodes means a current can flow The pulse of current is used to produce a click noise and add to the total count

There

is always ionising radiation present called background radiation It is caused by soil, rocks and materials like concrete, radioactive gases and cosmic rays.

The

activity of a radioactive source is the number of ionising particles it emits each second The activity decreases over time, as there are fewer nuclei decaying

The

time it takes for half the radioactive nuclei in a sample to decay is called the half life The half-life is also the time is takes for the activity (number of counts per second) to halve

A radioactive element is detected by a Geiger Muller tube and counter as having an activity of 400 counts per minute Three hours later the count is 50 counts per minute. What is the half life of the radioactive element? Write down the activity and progressively halve it: 0 400 counts 1 half life 200 counts 2 half lives 100 counts 3 half lives 50 counts 3 hours corresponds to three half lives, and 1 hour therefore corresponds to 1 half life

Gamma

rays: can kill bacteria, and is used in sterilization of medical equipment, and preserving food. It can also be used on a weld, with a photographic plate backing it you can see any weaknesses. Alpha rays: used in smoke alarms. Beta particles: monitor the thickness of paper or metal Radiotherapy uses high doses of radiation to fry cancer cells. Radiation is also used in Xrays.

The

alpha, beta and gamma rays can all damage living cells Alpha rays can damage human tissue, due to ionisation Gamma is dangerous due to its high penetration power, but can repair cells when at ordinary radiation levels They can mutate cells, cause damage in cells and tissues, and also cause issues with its disposal.

use

forceps to hold radioactive sources do not point it near living tissue store radioactive materials in lead-lined containers and lock them away Check the surrounding area for above average background radiation

Alpha ()
Description A positively charged particle, identical to a helium nucleus (2 protons, 2 neutrons)

Beta ()
A negatively charged particle, identical to an electron

Gamma ()
Electromagnetic radiation. Uncharged

Penetration

4 10 cm of air. Stopped by a sheet of paper

About 1m of air. Stopped by a few mm of aluminium

Almost no limit in air. Stopped by several cm of lead or several m of concrete.

Effect of electric and magnetic fields

Deflected

Deflected

Unaffected not deflected

J.J Thomson came up with his plum pudding atomic theory after conducting experiments in 1897. He used a cathode ray tube to identify smaller than atomic size particles that were negatively charged. From this, he figured out that atoms were made up of both positive and negatively charged particles.

Click

on the picture

Rutherford designed an experiment to test the plum pudding model. It was carried out by his assistants Geiger and Marsden. A beam of alpha particles was aimed at very thin gold foil and their passage through the foil detected. The scientists expected the alpha particles to pass straight through the foil but something else also happened. Some of the alpha particles emerged from the foil at different angles and some even came straight back. The scientists realised that the positively charged alpha particles were being repelled and deflected by a tiny concentration of positive charge in the atom. As a result of this experiment, the plum pudding model was replaced by the nuclear model of the atom.

Ernest

Rutherford hypothesised that atoms are mostly empty space but have a dense central nucleus. He used a gold foil scattering experiment to prove it.

Possibly the most important use for radioactive elements is in harnessing the energy their reactions give out to generate electricity. At the moment we do this using nuclear fission of Uranium. We can split up a big (unstable) nucleus by bombarding it with small particles (like electrons). In this case of uranium we can bombard it with a neutron which makes it even more unstable and eventually there will be fission which creates energy. Fission of U-235 produces two daughter nuclei and a small number of neutrons

When a uranium-235 or plutonium-239 nucleus is hit by a neutron, the following happens: the nucleus splits into two smaller nuclei, which are radioactive two or three more neutrons are released some energy is released The additional neutrons released may also hit other uranium or plutonium nuclei and cause them to split. Even more neutrons are then released, which in turn can split more nuclei. This is called a chain reaction. The chain reaction in nuclear reactors is controlled to stop it going too fast.

Click

the picture

The

nuclear fuel, usually uranium oxide, is held in metal containers called fuel rods. These are lowered into the reactor core. A coolant, usually water or carbon dioxide, is circulated through the reactor core to remove the heat. Control rods are also lowered into the core. These absorb neutrons and control the rate of the chain reaction. They are raised to speed it up, or lowered to slow it down.

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