Rferer

Cognition
Chapter 8
General Knowledge
How do we know what properties something has, and which of its properties should be generalized to other objects? How is the knowledge underlying these abilities acquired, and how is it affected by brain disorders?
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
Introduction
semantic memory schemas We have an enormous amount of information at our disposal, and we use this information efficiently and accurately.
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory

Background on Semantic Memory semantic memory - encyclopedic knowledge, lexical or language knowledge, conceptual knowledge category concept semantic memory allows us to:
code objects make inferences decide which objects are similar
Chapter 8

The Feature Comparison Model Concepts are stored in memory according to a list of necessary features or characteristics. Description of the Feature Comparison Model defining features - necessary characteristics features
Chapter 8

The Feature Comparison Model
Chapter 8

Research on the Feature Comparison Model sentence verification technique reaction times to answer true/false typicality effectpeople reach decisions faster when an item is a typical member of a category, rather than an unusual member problemvery few of the concepts we use in everyday life can be captured by a Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8 specific list of necessary, defining features

The Feature Comparison Model Conclusions about the Feature Comparison Model
can account for typicality effect, but research does not support the idea that category membership is based on a list of necessary features feature comparison model assumes that individual features are independent of one another, however many features are correlated feature comparison model does not explain how the members of categories are related to one another

The Prototype Approach Eleanor Roschwe organize each category on the basis of a prototype, which is the item that is most typical and representative of the category
prototype
approachyou decide whether an item belongs to a category by comparing that item with a prototype personal experience a prototype is an abstract, idealized example; may not exist members of a category differ in prototypicality graded structureall members of categories are not created equal Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8

Characteristics of Prototypes 1. Prototypes are supplied as examples of a category Mervis and colleagues (1976) prototype ratings for examples of categories items rated most prototypical were the same items that other people had supplied most often in the category norms Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8 accounts for typicality effectwhen

Characteristics of Prototypes 2. Prototypes are judged more quickly after semantic priming semantic priming effectpeople respond faster to an item if it was preceded by an item with similar meaning priming facilitates the responses to prototypes more than it facilitates the responses to nonprototypes Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8 priming inhibits judgments for

Priming examples
Orthographic Prime corner turnip tinsel bulletin topple Target CORN TURN TIN BULLET TOP Morphological Prime friendly punishment wonderful active greatness Target FRIEND PUNISH Prime idea crazy Semantic Target NOTION INSANE LIKE CHOOSE FEEL
Chapter 8
WONDER admire ACT GREAT pick touch

Characteristics of Prototypes 3. Prototypes share attributes in a family resemblance category family resemblance no single attribute shared by all examples of a concept each example has at least one attribute in common with some other example of the concept no single attribute serves as the Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter necessary and sufficient criterion8

3. Prototypes share attributes in a family resemblance category (continued) Rosch and Mervis (1975) prototypicality judgments about members of several categories list attributes possessed by each item the most prototypical item also had the largest number of attributes in common with the other items in the Cognition 7e, Chapter 8 categoryMargaret Matlin

The Prototype Approach Levels of Categorization super-ordinate-level categories basic-level categories subordinate-level categories
Chapter 8
Chapter 8

The Prototype Approach Levels of Categorization 2. Basic-level names are more likely to produce the semantic priming effect priming with basic-level names is helpful priming with superordinate names is not helpful
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The Prototype Approach Levels of Categorization 3. Different levels of categorization activate different regions of the brain. superordinate terms are more likely than basic-level terms to activate part of the prefrontal cortex subordinate terms are more likely than basic-level terms to activate part of the parietal region Cognition Margaret Matlin Chapter 8 Example: 7e,Animal

Conclusions About the Prototype Approach can account for our ability to form concepts for groups that are loosely structured can be applied to social relationships, inanimate objects, nonsocial categories Problems concepts can be unstable and variable (e.g., prototype ratings can shift based on experience) Cognition Chapter we often do 7e, Margaret Matlin store specific information 8

Individual Differences: Expertise and Prototypes expertise practice experts construct prototypes in a different fashion
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Individual Differences: Expertise and Prototypes Lynch, Coley, and Medin (2000) tree experts experts' best examples were very tall, wellbehaved trees . . . rather than typical, average trees for novices the ratings were based on familiarity rather than typicality

Individual Differences: Expertise and Prototypes Johnson and Mervis (1997) experts and novices prefer different levels of categorization bird-watching experts provide very specific names for birds, rather than basic-level term
Chapter 8
Individual Differences: Expertise and Prototypes

Example of Expert Prototypes
Chapter 8

The Exemplar Approach first learn some specific examples of a concept (exemplars) then classify each new stimulus by deciding how closely it resembles those specific examples
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A Representative Study on the Exemplar Approach Heit and Barsalou (1996) provide first example that comes to mind of seven basic-level categories different group rates the typicality of each category and of each example with respect to "animal" researchers try to create equation to predict typicality of the categories Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter based on the exemplars in terms of 8

Heit and Barsalou (1996) (continued) exemplar frequency and exemplar typicality did accurately predict which of the seven categories were most typical for the superordinate category "animal" less typical exemplars increase the correlation when asked a question about a category, people don't just consider Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin prototypes, they also include Chapter 8

Comparing the Exemplar Approach with Other Approaches
exemplar approach proposes that we do not need any list of features (as in feature comparison approach), because all the necessary information is stored in the specific exemplars make decisions about category membership by comparing to a stored representation (like prototype approach), but the stored representation is a collection of numerous specific members of the category, not a typical member

Comparing the Exemplar Approach with Other Approaches (continued)
do not need to perform any kind of abstraction process (don't need to devise list of features or a prototype) which would force you to discard useful, specific data about individual cases
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Problems with the Exemplar Approach
exemplar approach may be more suitable for categories with relatively few members (so as not to overwhelm semantic memory) Requires too much memory prototype approach may be more suitable for categories with numerous members individual differences in representations may be substantial
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Conclusions
both approaches may coexist different hemispheres

leftprototypes rightexemplars)
different categories may require different strategies for category formation
Chapter 8

Network Models network models of semantic memory propose a netlike organization of concepts in memory, with many interconnections; the meaning of a concept depends on the concepts to which it is connected
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The Collins and Loftus Network Model semantic memory is organized in terms of netlike structures, with numerous interconnections when we retrieve information , activation spreads to related concepts Node = concept link Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin spreading activation
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The Collins and Loftus Network Model sentence verification tasksactivations spreads from the concept nodes until an intersection is located (or not) frequently used links have greater strengths; activation travels faster between those nodes explains typicality effect, but has been Cognition 7e, Chapter superceded by Margaret Matlin more complex theories 8

Network Models Anderson's ACT Theories ACT-RAutomatic Components of Thought-Rational; attempts to account for all of cognition propositional network propositionsmallest unit of knowledge that can be judged either true or false; abstract representation

ACT* distinguishes among three types of memory structures
Declarative memory (LTM) takes the form of a semantic net linking propositions, images, and sequences by associations. Procedural memory (LTM) represents information in the form of productions Working memory is that part of long-term memory that is most highly activated.
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A propositional network
Chapter 8
Chapter 8

Productions in Procedural memory
Productions represent knowledge about how we do things

Example: knowledge about how to type the letter "Q" on a keyboard, about how to drive, or about how to perform addition.
"IF a sensory precondition "THEN action
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Anderson's ACT Theories (continued) activation can spread limited capacity of working memory can restrict the spreading if many links are activated simultaneously, then each link receives relatively little activation
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Chapter 8

Network Models The Parallel Distributed Processing Approach McClelland and colleagues parallel distributed processing (PDP) approach cognitive processes can be represented by a model in which activation flows through networks that link together a large number of simple, neuron-like units
Compare PDP with Semantic
Chapter 8
Compare PDP with Semantic
Chapter 8

Why use neural networks? Neural networks is to learn to associate patterns in input data to an output on their own involves modifying the connection weights Gives them the ability to
Derive
meaning from complicated or imprecise data Matlin Cognition 7e, Margaret
Chapter 8

How Do Neural Networks Work? The output of a neuron is a function of the weighted sum of the inputs plus a bias
Chapter 8

How Do Neural Networks Learn (to associate output with an input pattern)?
If the output is not correct, the weights are adjusted according to a formula
Uses the difference between input and output
Goal - Minimizing the error in the network

Most common measure of error is the mean square error: E = (target output)2
Chapter 8
Neural Network Example

Handwriting Recognition
Chapter 8
Neural Network Example Bank Loans
Imagine a highly experienced bank manager who must decide which customers will qualify for a loan. Her decision is based on a completed application form that contains ten questions. The bank manager's experience allows her to use "Intuition that will enable her to recognize certain patterns that her brain has become attuned to. If we had a large number of loan applications as input, along with the manager's decisions as output, a neural network could be "trained" on these patterns. The inner workings of the neural network have enough mathematical sophistication to reasonably simulate the expert's intuition.

Parallel Distributed Processing Assumptions Cognitive processes arise from the interactions of neurons through synaptic connections. The knowledge in such interactive and distributed processing systems is stored in the strengths of the connections and is acquired gradually Cognition 7e, Margaret Chapter 8 through experience Matlin

Three Central Characteristics of PDP 1. Cognitive processes are based on parallel operations, rather than serial operations. Therefore, many patterns of activation may be proceeding simultaneously.
Chapter 8

Three Central Characteristics of PDP
2. A network contains basic neuron-like units or nodes, which are connected together so that a specific node has many links to other nodes (hence the alternate name for the theory: connectionism).
PDP theorists argue that most cognitive processes can be explained by the activation of these networks.
Chapter 8

Three Central Characteristics of PDP
3. A concept is represented by the pattern of activity distributed throughout a set of nodes.
Notice that this view is very different from the commonsense idea that all the information you know about a particular person or object is stored in one specific location in the brain.

Features & Concepts of PDP serial search vs. parallel search memory can cope with partial and/or partly incorrect information characteristics connected in a mutually stimulating network spontaneous generalizationdraw a conclusion about a general category default assignmentdraw a conclusion about a specific member of a category
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Other important characteristics of PDP
3. Every new piece of information you learn will change the strength of connections among relevant units by adjusting the connection weights.
4. Sometimes we have only partial memory for some information, rather than complete, perfect memory. The brains ability to provide partial memory is called graceful degradation (e.g., tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon, Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8 brain function after accident or stroke)

Current Status of PDP Theory generally consistent with the neurological design or neurons and the brain works better for tasks in which several processes typically operate simultaneously; tasks requiring serial processing may be accounted for by other models PDP explains: word superiority effect, Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin retroactive interference, category Chapter 8

Current Status of Theory (continued) used to study social psychology, developmental psychology, cognitive disorders
can explain situations where learning accumulates gradually across trials The parallel distributed processing approach to semantic cognition James L. McClelland & Timothy T. Rogers Nature Reviews Neuroscience 4, 310-322 (April 2003)

Parallel Distributed Processing Approach Problems
not currently structured enough to handle the subtleties and complexities of semantic memory has trouble explaining why we sometimes forget extremely well-learned information when we learn additional information cannot explain why we sometimes can recall earlier material when it has been replaced by more current material
Chapter 8
Schemas and Scripts

schemageneralized knowledge about a situation, an event, or a person schema theories especially helpful when psychologists try to explain how people process complex situations and events Scripts-a simple, well structured sequence of effects-in aspecified order-that are associated with a highly familiar activity What Your Favorite Porn Says About Who Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8 You Are
Schemas and Scripts

Background on Schemas and Scripts People encode "generic" information about a situation or event, then use this information when in that situation or a similar situation This package of information is called a schema heuristicsgeneral rules that are typically accurate
Schemas and Scripts

Background on Schemas and Scripts Piaget Bartlett social psychology schema therapy scriptsimple, well-structured sequence of events scripts recalled more accurately if identified in advance
Schemas and Scripts

Enhanced Memory for Schema-Consistent Material Brewer and Treyens (1981) recall objects from waiting room; highly likely to recall objects consistent with "office schema" "remembered" items that were not in the room, but were consistent with "office schema" Neuschatz and coauthors (2002) Cognition 7e, Margaret Chapter 8 "lecture schema" Matlin
Schemas and Scripts

Enhanced Memory for Schema-Inconsistent Material people are more likely to recall schemainconsistent material when that material is vivid or surprising Davidson (1994)read stories describing well-known schemas; people especially likely to recall schema-inconsistent Chapter 8 eventsCognitioninterrupted the normal, that 7e, Margaret Matlin
Schemas and Scripts

The Status of Schemas and Memory Selection Rojahn and Pettigrew (1992)metaanalysis; schema-inconsistent material was somewhat more memorable However, when people "remember" events that never actually happened, they are likely to construct a schema-consistent event
Schemas and Scripts

Schemas and Boundary Extension Boundary extensionour tendency to remember having viewed a greater portion of a scene than was actually shown Intraub and colleaguessee photo then draw replica of photo; participants consistently produced a sketch that extended the boundaries beyond the view presented in the original photo p. 270 Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
Schemas and Scripts

Schemas and Memory Abstraction abstractiona memory process that stores the meaning of a message but not the exact words verbatim memoryword-for-word recall
Chapter 8
Schemas and Scripts

Schemas and Memory Abstraction The Constructive Approach Bransford and Franks (1971) listen to sentences from several different stories recognition test including new items people convinced that they had seen these new items before (false alarm) false alarms particularly likely for complex sentences consistent with the Cognition 7e, Margaret Chapter 8 original schema Matlin
Schemas and Scripts

Schemas and Memory Abstraction The Constructive Approach constructive model of memorypeople integrate information from individual sentences in order to construct larger ideas; later cannot untangle the constructed information from the verbatim sentences
Chapter 8
Schemas and Scripts

Schemas and Memory Abstraction The Pragmatic Approach pragmatic view of memorypeople pay attention to the aspect of a message that is most relevant to their current goals
Chapter 8
Schemas and Scripts

Schemas and Memory Abstraction The Pragmatic Approach Murphy and Shapiro (1994) read letters from "Samantha" to cousin or boyfriend bland vs. sarcastic comments recognition test on original, paraphrased, or irrelevant sentences
Chapter 8
Pragmatic Approach
Chapter 8
Schemas and Scripts

Schemas and Memory Abstraction The Pragmatic Approach Murphy and Shapiro (1994) (continued) correct recognition was higher for sentences from the sarcastic condition than for sentences in the bland condition more false alarms for paraphrases of bland sentences than sarcastic sentences Cognition 7e, Chapter 8 more accurate Margaret Matlin in their verbatim memory
Schemas and Scripts

Schemas and Memory Abstraction The Current Status of Schemas and Memory Abstraction two approaches (Constructive and Pragmatic) quite compatible in many cases we integrate information into large schemas in some cases we know that specific words matter and pay close attention to precise wording
Schemas and Scripts

In Depth: Schemas and Inferences in Memory inferenceslogical interpretations and conclusions that were not part of the original stimulus material
Chapter 8
Schemas and Scripts

In Depth: Schemas and Inferences in Memory The Classic Research on Inferences Bartlett (1932)memory as the complex interaction between the participants' prior knowledge and the material presented; individual's unique interests and personal background often shape the contents of memory "The War of the Ghosts" studyNative Cognition read and recalled by Chapter 8 American story7e, Margaret Matlin British
Schemas and Scripts

In Depth: Schemas and Inferences in Memory The Classic Research on Inferences "The War of the Ghosts" study (continued) Participants tended:
to omit material that didn't make sense from their own viewpoint to shape the story into a more familiar framework to add extra material to the story, making inferences so that the story made more sense from their perspective to borrow more heavily from their previous knowledge as timeCognition 7e, Margaret Matlin passed before additional recall Chapter 8
Schemas and Scripts

In Depth: Schemas and Inferences in Memory Research on Inferences Based on Gender Stereotypes gender stereotypeswidely shared sets of beliefs about the characteristics of females and males
Chapter 8
Schemas and Scripts

In Depth: Schemas and Inferences in Memory Research on Inferences Based on Gender Stereotypes Explicit Memory Task Dunning and Sherman (1997) read sentences followed by recognition-memory test "new" sentences consistent or inconsistent with gender stereotypes more likely to mistakenly "remember" a Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin new sentence as "old" when it Chapter 8 was
Schemas and Scripts

In Depth: Schemas and Inferences in Memory Research on Inferences Based on Gender Stereotypes Implicit Memory Tasks 1. Using neuroscience techniques to assess gender stereotypes Osterhout, Bersick and McLaughlin (1997)ERP technique stereotype-consistent sentences vs. stereotype-inconsistent sentences change in ERPs for stereotypeinconsistent words but not for Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin stereotype-consistent words Chapter 8
Schemas and Scripts

In Depth: Schemas and Inferences in Memory Research on Inferences Based on Gender Stereotypes Implicit Memory Tasks 2. Using the Implicit Association Test to assess gender stereotypes Nosek, Banaji, and Greenwald (2002) Implicit Association Test (IAT)based on the principle that people can mentally pair related words together much more easily than they can pair Cognition Chapter 8 unrelated7e, Margaret Matlin words
Schemas and Scripts

In Depth: Schemas and Inferences in Memory Research on Inferences Based on Gender Stereotypes Implicit Memory Tasks 2. Using the Implicit Association Test to assess gender stereotypes (continued) Stereotype-Consistent pairings (male/math vs. female/arts) Stereotype-Inconsistent pairings (female/math vs. male/arts)
Schemas and Scripts

In Depth: Schemas and Inferences in Memory Research on Inferences Based on Gender Stereotypes Implicit Memory Tasks 2. Using the Implicit Association Test to assess gender stereotypes (continued) participants responded significantly faster to the stereotype-consistent parings than to the stereotypeinconsistent pairings technique can be used to examine Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
Schemas and Scripts

In Depth: Schemas and Inferences in Memory Implications of Inferences for Persuasion Advertising Harris and colleagues (1989) read stories containing advertising slogans direct claim vs. implied claim people who had seen the implied-claim version often believed they had seen the direct-claim version Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8 Consumers be careful
Schemas and Scripts

In Depth: Schemas and Inferences in Memory Implications of Inferences for Persuasion Politics statements can be technically accurate but still misleading listeners make incorrect inference people make inferences only in certain situations; often recall material in its original form
Schemas and Scripts

Schemas and Integration in Memory Integration and Delayed Recall background knowledge may not encourage schema-consistent integration if people are tested immediately after the material is learned Harris and colleagues (1989) story consistent with U.S. or traditional Mexican culture no chaperone/chaperone Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8 recall after 30 minutesno tendency for
Schemas and Scripts

Schemas and Integration in Memory Integration and Limited Memory Capacity schemas are more likely to influence memory integration when memory capacity is strained during recall, but not on a relatively simple task
Chapter 8
Schemas and Scripts

Conclusions About Schemas 1. We often select material for memory that is inconsistent with our schemas. 2. We may indeed remember that we saw only a portion of an object, rather than the complete object. 3. We frequently recall the exact words of a passage as it was originally presented.
Chapter 8
Schemas and Scripts

Conclusions About Schemas 4. We often avoid making inappropriate inferences. 5. We may keep the elements in memory isolated from each other, rather than integrated together. 6. When we are recalling information from our real-life experiencesrather than information created by researcherswe may be more accurate.

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Cognition

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

The Structure of Semantic Memory

The Structure of Semantic Memory

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

The Structure of Semantic Memory

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

The Structure of Semantic Memory

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

The Structure of Semantic Memory

The Structure of Semantic Memory

The Structure of Semantic Memory

The Structure of Semantic Memory

The Structure of Semantic Memory

The Structure of Semantic Memory

WONDER admire ACT GREAT pick touch

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

The Structure of Semantic Memory

The Structure of Semantic Memory

The Structure of Semantic Memory

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

The Structure of Semantic Memory

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

The Structure of Semantic Memory

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

The Structure of Semantic Memory

The Structure of Semantic Memory

The Structure of Semantic Memory

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

The Structure of Semantic Memory

The Structure of Semantic Memory

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

Individual Differences: Expertise and Prototypes

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

The Structure of Semantic Memory

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

The Structure of Semantic Memory

The Structure of Semantic Memory

The Structure of Semantic Memory

The Structure of Semantic Memory

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

The Structure of Semantic Memory

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

The Structure of Semantic Memory

both approaches may coexist different hemispheres

different categories may require different strategies for category formation

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

The Structure of Semantic Memory

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

The Structure of Semantic Memory

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

The Structure of Semantic Memory

The Structure of Semantic Memory

The Structure of Semantic Memory

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

The Structure of Semantic Memory

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

The Structure of Semantic Memory

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

The Structure of Semantic Memory

Productions represent knowledge about how we do things

"IF a sensory precondition "THEN action

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin