Pneumatics system

Air preparation
Pneumatic systems use pressurized gas to transmit and control power. As the name implies, pneumatic system typically use air (rather than some

other gas) as the fluid medium, because air is a safe, low-cost and readily available fluid.
It is particularly safe in environments where an electrical spark could ignite

leaks from system components.

There are several reasons for considering the use of pneumatic systems instead

of hydraulic systems. Liquids exhibit greater inertia than doe gases.

Therefore, decelerating actuators and when suddenly opening and closing

valves.
Liquids also exhibit greater viscosity than do gases. This results in larger

frictional pressure and power losses.

 Also, since hydraulic systems use a fluid foreign to the atmosphere they require

especial reservoirs and no-leak system designs.

Pneumatic systems use air that is exhaust directly back into the surrounding

environment.
Generally speaking, pneumatic systems are less expensive than hydraulic

systems.
However, because of the compressibility of air, it is impossible to obtain precise,

controlled actuator velocities with pneumatic systems.

Also, precise positioning control is not obtainable. In applications where

actuator travel is to be smooth and steady against a variable load, the air exhaust from the actuator is normally metered.
Whereas pneumatic pressures are quite low due to the explosion dangers

involved if components such air tanks should rupture (less than 250 psi), hydraulic pressures can be as high as 12,000 psi.

 Component parts

Compressors
A compressor is a machine that compresses air or another type of gas from a low

inlet pressure (usually atmospheric) to a higher desired pressure level.

This is accomplished by reducing the volume of the gas. Air compressors are generally positive displacement units and are either of the

reciprocating piston type or rotary screw or rotary vane types.

Piston compressors

 For compressor having more than one cylinder, staging can be used to improve

pumping efficiency. Staging means dividing the total pressure among two or
more cylinders by feeding the exhaust from one cylinder into the inlet of the next.
Because effective cooling can be implemented between stages, multistage

compressors can dramatically increase the efficiency and reduce input power requirements. In multistage piston compressors, successive cylinder sizes decrease, and the intercooling removes a significant portion of the heat of compression. This increases air density and the volumetric efficiency of the compressor.

 Compressor starting unloader controls

An air compressor must start, run, deliver air to the systems as needed,

stop and be ready to start again without the attention of an operator.

Since these functions usually take place after a compressed air system

has been brought up to pressure, automatic controls are required to

work against the air pressure already established by the compressor.
If an air compressor is started for the very first time, there is no need for

starting unloader control since there is not yet an established pressure

against which the compressor must start.
However, once a pressure has been established in the compressed air

piping, a starting unloader is needed to prevent the established air pressure from pushing back against the compressor, preventing it from coming up to speed.

 Figure below shows a pressure-switch-type unloader control. When the

pressure switches shuts the electric motor off, pressure between the compressor
head and the check valve is bled off to the atmosphere through the release valve.
The compressor is then free to start again whenever needed.

 Figure below illustrates the operation of the centrifugal-type unloader control.

To provide a greater degree of protection for motors and drives, an unloader

valve operates by the air compressor itself rather than by the switch.
This type is preferred on larger compressors. A totally enclosed centrifugal unloader operated by and installed on the

compressor crankshaft is the best for this purpose.

 Screw compressor

There is a current trend toward increased use of the rotary-

type compressor due to technological advances, which have produced stronger materials and better manufacturing processes.
Figure 5.13 shows a cutaway view of a single-stage screw-type

compressor, which very similar to screw pump.

Compression is accomplished by rolling the trapped air into

a progressively smaller volume as the screw rotate.

 Fluid conditioners

The purpose of fluid conditioners is to make air a more acceptable fluid

medium for the pneumatic systems as well as operating personnel.

Fluid conditioners include filters, regulators, lubricators, mufflers and air

dryers.
Air filters The function of a filter is to remove contaminants from the air before it reaches

pneumatic components such as valves and actuators.

 Air pressure regulators

So that a constant pressure is available for a given pneumatic system, a pressure

regulator is used.
Figure bellow illustrates the design features of a pressure regulator whose

operation is as follows:
Airflow enters the regulator at A. Turning adjusting knob B clockwise (viewed

from knob end) compresses spring C, causing diaphragm D and main valve E to move, allowing flows across the valve seat area.

 Pressure in the downstream area is sensed through aspirator tube F to the area

H above diaphragm D. as downstream pressure rises, it offsets the load of spring C. diaphragm D and valve E move to close the valve against its seat, stopping airflow through the regulator.
The holding pressure of spring C and downstream pressure H are in balance, at

reduced outlet pressure.

Any airflow demand downstream, such as opening a valve will cause the

downstream pressure to drop.

Spring C will gain push open valve E, repeating the sequence in modulating

fashion to maintain the downstream pressure setting.

A rise in downstream pressure above the set pressure, will cause diaphragm D

to lift off the top of valve stem J, thus relieving the excess
pressure to the atmosphere under knob B. when the downstream pressure

returns to the set pressure, the diaphragm reseats on the valve stem, and the system is again in equilibrium.

 Air lubricators

A lubricator ensures proper lubrication of internal moving parts of the

pneumatic components. Figure below illustrates the operation of a lubricator, which inserts every drop of oil leaving the drip tube, as seen through the sight dome, directly into the airstream.
These drops of oil are transformed into an oil mist prior to their being

transported downstream. This oil mist consists of both coarse and fine particles. The coarse particles may travel distances of 20 ft or more, while the fine particles often reach distances as great as 300 ft from the lubricator source.

 Pneumatic silencers

A pneumatic exhaust silencer (muffler) is used to control the noise caused by a

rapidly exhausting airstream flowing into the atmosphere.

The increased use of compressed air in industry has created a noise problem. Compressed air exhaust generate high-intensity sound energy, much of it in the

same frequency ranges as normal conversation.

Excessive exposure to these noises can cause loss of hearing without noticeable

pain or discomfort.
Noise exposure also causes fatigue and lowers production. It blocks out

warming signals, thus causing accidents.

This noise problem can be solved installing a pneumatic silencer at each

pneumatic exhaust port.

 Aftercooler Air from the atmosphere contains varying amounts of moisture in the form of

water vapor.
Compressors do not remove this moisture. Cooling of compressed air in piping causes condensation of moisture, much of

which is eventually carried along into air-operated tools and machines.

Water washes away lubricants causing excessive wear in components containing

moving parts such as cylinders, valves and motors.

Water also causes rusting of metallic surfaces and damage to plumbing

components such as conductors and fittings.

An aftercooler is a heat exchanger that has two functions. First, it serves to cool the hot air discharged from the compressor to a desirable level (about 80 to 1000F) before it enters the receiver. Second, it removes most of the moisture from the air discharged from the compressor by virtue of cooling the air to lower temperature.

 Air dryers

Aftercooler remove only about 85% of the moisture from air leaving the compressor.

Air dryers are installed downstream of aftercooler when it is important to remove enough moisture from the air so that the air will not become saturated as it flows through the pneumatic system. There are three basic types of air dryers: Chemical, Absorption and Refrigeration
In chemical air dryers, moisture is absorbed by pellets made of dryer agent

materials, such as dehydrated chalk or calcium chloride. A chemical process turns the pellets into a liquid that is drained from the system. The pellets are replaced on a planned maintenance schedule.
Absoption dryers remove moisture, using beds made of materials such as activated

alumina or silica gel. This a mechanical process that involves the capturing of moisture in the pores of the bed material. On a planned maintenance schedule, the beds are replenished or reactivated by the application of heat and a dryer gas.

 Refrigeration dryers are basically refrigerators that use commercial refrigerants.

In these dryers, the moist air passes through a heat exchanger where it is cooled

as it follows around coils containing a liquid refrigerant.

Refrigeration dryers can achieve lower dew points and thus lower moisture

contents than can chemical or absorption type dryers.

Small to medium-size refrigeration dryers typically pass the moist air directly

across refrigerant coils.

The large-size units are called chiller dryers and operate by first cooling water

and running the cool water coils over which flows the moist air.

 Pressure regulators

Air control valves are used to control the pressure, flow-rate and direction of air

in pneumatic circuits. Pneumatic pressure control valves are air line regulators that air installed at the inlet of each separate pneumatic circuit. As such, they established the working pressure of the particular circuit. Sometimes air line regulators are installed within a circuit to provide two or more different pressure levels for separate portions of the circuit. A cutaway view of an actual pressure regulator is given in figure below.

 Check valves

In figure below we see a check valve that shuts off instantaneously against

reverse flow and open at low cracking pressures in the forward direction.
As shown in the schematic views, the disk seals before reverse flow is

established, thus avoiding fluid shock on reversal of pressure differential.

Although the design shown has a metal body, lightweight plastic body designs

with fittings suitable for plastic or metal tubing are also available.

 Basic pneumatic circuits

Pneumatic circuits are similar to their hydraulic counterparts.

One difference is that no return lines are used in pneumatic circuits because

the exhausted air is released directly into the atmosphere.

This is depicted by a short dashed line leading from the exhaust port of each

valve.
Also, no input device (such a pump in a hydraulic circuit) is shown, because

most pneumatic circuits use a centralized compressor as their source of energy.

The input to the circuit is located at some conveniently located manifold, which

leads directly into the filter-regulator-lubricator

 Operation of single-acting cylinder

Figure below shows a simple pneumatic circuit, which consists of a three-way

valve controlling a single-acting cylinder.

The return stroke is accomplished by a compression spring located at the rod

end of the cylinder.

When the push-button valve is actuated, the cylinder extends. It retracts when

the valve is deactivated.

Needle valve V1 and V2 permit speed control of the cylinder extension and

retraction strokes, respectively

 Operation of double-acting cylinder

In figure below we see the directional control of a double-acting cylinder using

four-way valve. Note that control of double-acting cylinder requires a DCV with four different functioning ports (each of two exhaust ports perform the same function). Thus, a four-way valve has four different functioning ports. In contrast, the control of a single-acting, spring-return cylinders requires a DCV with only three ports. Hence a three-way valve has only three ports, as shown in figure 6.5. Actuation of the push-button valve extends the cylinder. The spring offset mode causes the cylinder to retract under air power.

 Air pilot control of double-acting cylinder

In figure below we see a circuit in which a double-acting cylinder can be

remotely operated through the use of an air pilot actuated DCV. Push-button valves V1 and V2 are used to direct air flow (at low pressure such as 10 psi) to actuate the air-piloted DCV, which directs air at high-pressure such as 100 psi to the cylinder. Thus, operating personnel can use low-pressure push-button valves to remotely control the operation of a cylinder that requires highpressure air for performing its intended function. When V1 is actuated and V2 is in its spring offset mode, the cylinder extends. Deactivating V1 and then actuating V2 retracts the cylinder.

 Cylinder cycle timing system

Figure below shows a circuit that employs a limit valve to provide a timed

cylinder extends and retract cycle. When push-button valve V3 is momentarily actuated, valve V2 shifts to extend the cylinder. When the piston rod cam actuates limit valve V4, it shifts V2 into opposite mode to retract the cylinder. Flow control valve V1controls the flow-rate and thus the cylinder speed.

 Two-speed control system

A two-step speed control system is shown in figure 6.9. The operation is as

follows, assuming that flow control valve V3 is adjusted to allow a greater flowrate than V4. Initially the cylinder is fully retracted. When push-button valve V1 is actuated, air flow goes through the valve V2, V3 and the shuttle valve V5 to extend the cylinder in high speed. When the piston rod cam actuates valve V6, valve V2 shifts. The flow is therefore diverted to the valve V4 and through the shuttle valve. However, due to the low flow setting of valve V4, the extension speed of the cylinder is reduced. After the cylinder has fully extended, valve V1 is released by the operator to cause retraction of the cylinder.

 Two-handed safety control system

Figure 6.10 shows a two-handed safety control circuit. Both palm-button valves

(V1 and V2) must be actuated to cause the cylinder to extend. Retraction of the cylinder will not occur unless both palm buttons are released. If both palmbutton valves are not operated together, the pilot air to the three-position valve is vented. Hence, this three-way valve goes into its spring-centered mode and the cylinder is locked.

 Control of air motor

In figure below we see a circuit used to control an air motor. The operation is as

follows. When the START push-button valve is actuated momentarily, the air pilot valve shifts to supply to the motor. When the STOP push-button valve is actuated momentarily, the air pilot valve shifts into its opposite mode to shut off the supply of air motor. The flow control valve is used to adjust the speed of the motor.

 Deceleration air cushion cylinder

Figure 6.12 shows a circuit that provides an adjustable deceleration air cushion

at both ends of the stroke of the cylinder when it drives a load of large weight. The operation is as follows. Valve V1 supplies air to the rod end of the cylinder and to the pilot of the valve V5 through flow control valve V3. Free air exhausting from the blank end of the cylinder permits a fast cylinder-retraction stroke until valve V5 operates due to increased pressure at its pilot. When valve V5 is actuated, the cylinder blank end exhaust is restricted by the valve V7. The resulting pressure buildup in the blank end of the cylinder acts as an air cushion to gradually slow down the large weight load. For the extension stroke, valves V2, V4 and V6 behave in a fashion similar to that of valves V5, V7 and V3.

 Pneumatic vacuum systems

When we think of force caused by fluid pressure acting on the surface area of

an object, typically envision the pressure to be greater than atmospheric pressure. However, there are a number of applications where a vacuum air pressure is used to perform a useful function. Industrial applications where a vacuum pressure is used include material handling, clamping, sealing and vacuum forming.
In terms of materials-handling applications, a pneumatic vacuum can be used

to lift smoothly objects that have a flat surface and are not more than several hundred pounds in weight. Examples of such object include glass plates, sheet metal, sheets of paper and floor covering materials, such as ceramic tile and sheets of linoleum. The weight limitation is due to the fact that the maximum suction pressure equals 1 atm of pressure in magnitude.

 Material handling applications

Figure 6.13 shows a material handling application where a vacuum cup

(sometimes called a suction cup) is used to establish the force capability to lift a flat sheet. The cup is typically made of flexible material such as rubber so that a seal can be made where its lip contacts the surface of the flat sheet. A vacuum pump (not shown) is turned on to remove air from the cavity between the inside of the cup and top surface of the flat sheet. As the pressure in the cavity falls below atmospheric pressure, the atmospheric pressure acting on the bottom of the flat sheet pushes the flat sheet against the lip of the cup. This action results in vacuum an upward force to be extended on the flat sheet.