Learning Objectives

Acquire knowledge on:

Multimedia exposure House dust (composition & measurement) Pollutants in house dust
Population at-risk from pollutants Characteristics of pollutants Health effects of pollutants

Identify ways to reduce exposure to pollutants in house dust

What is multimedia exposure?

Exposure to a toxic substance from multiple pathways such as air, water, soil, food, and breast milk.1 Substances may come into contact with humans through various media: air (outdoor and indoor), workplace, water, foodstuffs, and household chemicals.2
Sources: 1http://coalitionforcleanair.org/air-pollution-glossary (Accessed Nov. 6,2012) 2Bustueva KA. 1991. Some Specifications of Multimedia Exposure Monitoring Assessment. In RG Tardiff & B Goldstein (eds.) Methods for Assessing Exposure of Human and Non-Human Biota.

What is multimedia exposure analysis?

Multimedia exposure analysis: determines how often individuals are exposed to concentration of pollutants, and the contribution of individual sources to the total exposure; and creates a distribution that provides information on the percent of individuals exposed to different concentration levels for an averaging time of interest.

Source: JW Roberts & WR Ott. 2007. Exposure to Pollutants from House Dust. In WR Ott, AC Steinemann & LA Wallace (eds.) Exposure Analysis.

What is house dust?

A heterogeneous mixture of substances from various sources, including tracked-in or resuspended soil particles, fibers (artificial or natural), atmospheric deposition of particulates, hair, molds, pollen, allergens, bacteria, viruses, arthropods, ash, soot, animal fur and dander, smoke, skin particles, cooking and heating residues, building components and among others
(Pastenbauch, Finley & Long, 1997)

House dust also contains pollutants from window cleaners, laundry detergents, spot removers, plastics, electronics and carpeting
(Rudel et al., 2003)

House dust serves as a reservoir for chemicals either tracked-in or used indoors

Composition of House Dust

Source: PJ Lioy, NC Freeman & JR Millette. 2002. Dust: A Metric for Use in Residential and Building Exposure Assessment and Source Characterization. Environmental Health Perspectives, 110 (10).

Relative Contribution of Soil in House Dust

Source: AG Oomen & JPA Lijzen. 2004. Relevancy of human exposure via house dust to contaminants lead and asbestos. RIVM report 711701037.

Difference between Dust and Soil

Soil. Particles of unconsolidated mineral and/or organic matter from the earths surface that are located outdoors, or are used indoors to support plant growth. It includes particles that have settled onto outdoor objects and surfaces (outdoor settled dust). Indoor Settled Dust. Particles in building interiors that have settled onto objects, surfaces, floors, and carpeting. These particles may include soil particles that have been tracked or blown into the indoor environment from outdoors as well as organic matter. Outdoor Settled Dust. Particles that have settled onto outdoor objects and surfaces due to either wet or dry deposition. Note that it may not be possible to distinguish between soil and outdoor settled dust, since outdoor settled dust generally would be present on the uppermost surface layer of soil.

Characteristics of House Dust that Influence Exposure Potential

Dust particle size distribution Concentration of contaminants in dust relative to exterior soils Bioavailability of the fine versus the larger particles Indoor environmental factors

Particle Size Distribution

House dust is composed of smaller particles than soil Size affects deposition or mobility rates
50% of house dust have soil particles greater than 150m in diameter (Roberts et al., 1991) Stomping experiment by Ott showing that stomping activity increased the concentration of PM5 or smaller at 30 inches above the floor and the level returned to normal only after 1.5 hours

Fine particles adhere to skin more easily and effectively thereby increasing exposure potential

Ratio of Contaminants in Dust and Soil

Contaminants appear to be greater in house dust compared to exterior soil Roberts et al. (1992) explained that small particles have a higher surface area and toxicity per unit mass

Bioavailability of Fine Particles

Contaminants appear to be greater in house dust compared to exterior soil Roberts et al. (1992) explained that small particles have a higher surface area and toxicity per unit mass Fine particles result in an increased absorbed dose

Indoor Environmental Factors

Indoor environment protects pollutants from the degradation, aging or dispersion Many chemicals found in house dust can persist indoors for a long time because there is no rain, sun, or other environmental elements that help to break down and get rid of these agents The variability in the particle loading from inside vs. outside the home and among homes is dependent on home occupants activities, presence of pets and steps taken to reduce house dust (e.g. cleaning intensity and method)

Measuring House Dust

Filtering method Wiping method
Surface wipe sampling Rug and carpet sampling

Vacuum method Personal (fine particle) monitor

Measuring House Dust

Who is At-Risk from House Dust Pollutants?

Infants and young children are particularly vulnerable to chemical exposures from house dust because they frequently tend to place their hands or other objects in their mouths and because they spend a large portion of their time on the floor exploring their environment Anyone with asthma or other respiratory problems, or a weakened immune system should make every effort to reduce household dust

Pollutants in House Dust

Heavy metals Pesticides Alkylphenols
nonylphenol, octylphenol & their derivatives

Endotoxins/Allergens Organochlorine
polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) congeners, chlordane, DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) , DDE (dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene), methoxychlor & pentachlorophenol

Brominated flame retardants

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) polybrominated diphenyl ethers or PBDEs,

hexabromocyclododecane or HBCD & tetrabromobisphenol-A or TBBP-A

Organotin compounds
butyltins, octyltins, & tri-butyltin or TBT

Phthalate esters Short-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs)

What is Lead?
Lead exists in the earths crust, and occurs naturally in the environment through a variety of mechanisms including volcanic emissions and geochemical weathering. Lead has been put to many uses and is important in plumbing materials, gasoline additives, batteries, pigments and ammunition.

What are the health effects of Lead?

Source: L. Fewtrell, R. Kaufmann & AP Ustun. 2003. Lead: Assessing the environmental burden of disease at national and local levels. WHO Environmental Burden of Disease Series No. 2. Retrieved from www.who.int/quantifying_ehimpacts/publications/en/leadebd2.pdf

 The loss of IQ points is quantified assuming a linear relationship of 1.3 IQ points lost per 5 g/dl of blood lead between 520 g/dl (fig. 2)
1.59% of population enters MMR cut-off of 70 due to lead (fig. 3)

Lead Standards in Dust and Soil:

(USEPA, 2001)

Dust-lead hazard 40 g/ft2 on floors and 250 g/ft2 on window sills. The floor standard applies to carpeted surfaces as well as bare floors. Soil-lead hazard 400 parts per million (ppm) for bare soil in play areas and 1,200 ppm average in the rest of the yard. Deteriorated lead-based paint (LBP) deterioration larger than 20 ft2 exterior and 2 ft2 interior or damage to 10% of the total surface area of interior small surface area components. LBP is a paint of any surface coating containing lead > 1 mg/cm2

Pesticides in House Dust

Source: NJ Simcox, RA Fenske, SA Wols, IC Lee & DA Kalman. 1995. Pesticides in Household Dust and Soil: Exposure Pathways fro Children of Agricultural Families. Environmental health Perspectives, 103 (12).

Alkyphenols
Alkyphenols (APs), are non-halogenated chemicals manufactured almost exclusively to produce alkylphenol ethoxylates (APEs), a group of non-ionic surfactants. The most widely used APEs are ethoxylates of nonylphenol (NPEs) and, to a lesser extent, octylphenol (OPEs). NPEs have been used as surfactants, emulsifiers, dispersants and/or wetting agents in a variety of industrial and consumer applications. The largest share (almost 30%) was used in industrial and institutional cleaning products (detergents), although uses such as emulsifiers (11%), textile finishers (10%), leather finishers (7%) and as components of pesticides and other agricultural products (6%) and water-based paints (5%) were also significant (OSPAR 2001). A substantial proportion (16%) was reportedly used in other niche markets (including as ingredients in cosmetics, shampoos and other personal care products), or in glues and sealants. NP derivatives are reportedly also used as antioxidants in some plastics (Guenther et al. 2002).

Alkyphenols: Health effects

The main hazards associated with APEs result from their partial degradation to shorter-chain ethoxylates and to the parent APs themselves (i.e. NP and OP), both of which are toxic to aquatic organisms. Hazards to human health remain unclear, although recent studies have highlighted concerns directly relevant to humans. For example, Chitra et al. (2002), and AdeoyaOsiguwa et al. (2003), describe effects on mammalian sperm function, while DNA damage in human lymphocytes has also recently been documented (Harreus et al. 2002).

Brominated flame retardants

Brominated flame retardants (BFRs) are a group of brominated organic substances that have an inhibitory effect on the ignition of combustible organic materials. The most widely used BFRs are tetrabromobisphenol-A (TBBP-A), hexabromocyclododecane (HBCDD), and polybrominated diphenylethers (PBDEs) (De Winter-Sorkina et al., 2006). BFRs are applied to textiles, wiring, furniture, industrial paints and incorporated into plastics and foams, and they are commonly used in electronic products to reduce the flammability of the product.

Brominated flame retardants in Air vs Dust

Source: H Fromme et al. 2009. Human exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers, as evidenced by data from a Duplicate diet study, indoor air, house dust and biomonitoring in Germany. Environment International, 35, 1125-1135.

Brominated flame retardants: Health effects

A number of studies have suggested that PBDE are highly persistent and bioaccumulative Some animal studies have suggested that the critical effects are exhibited on the liver, in development, neurodevelopment and in the endocrine system (NICNAS, 2001; HC, 2006; Kuriyama et al., 2007). For example, rats that are pre- and perinatally exposed to relatively low doses of pentabrominated BDE 99 presented disturbed hormone levels While their acute toxicity is considered to be low, chronic exposure (especially in the womb) has been shown to interfere with brain and skeletal development in rats (Eriksson et al. 1999), which may in turn lead to permanent neurological effects (Eriksson et al. 2001) Helleday et al. (1999), report genotoxic effects for both PBDEs and HBCD in mammalian cell lines

Organotins
Chemical compounds based on tin with hydrocarbon substituents primarily used in five major commercial applications: PVC heat stabilizers, biocides, catalysts, agrichemicals and glass coatings.
Triorganotins have a high toxicity and can be powerful fungicides and bactericides, depending on the organic group present. Tributyltins (TBT) are industrial biocides used in antifouling paints and in wood treatment and preservation. Tributyltins are also used as disinfectants, molluscicides, antifungal action in textiles and industrial water systems such as cooling tower and refrigeration water systems, wood pulp and paper mill systems, and breweries. Many of these applications have been phased out because of the high aquatic toxicity of tributyltins. Triphenyltins are used as fungicides, miticides and acaricides.
Source: AG Oomen, PJCM Janssen, A Dusseldorp, CW Noorlander. 2008. Exposure to chemicals via house dust. RIVM report 609021064.

Organotins: Health effects

Organotins have been demonstrated to have immunotoxic and teratogenic (developmental) properties also in mammalian systems (Kergosien and Rice 1998), with dibutyltins (DBT) again frequently appearing more toxic than TBT (Ema et al. 1995, De Santiago and Aguilar-Santelises 1999). DBT is neurotoxic to mammalian brain cells (Eskes et al. 1999). Kumasaka et al. (2002) have described toxic effects on testes development in mice.

Phthalate esters
Phthalates or phthalate esters, are a group of chemicals that are mainly used as softeners in flexible PVC products. Phthalates can be found in a broad range of consumer products like packaging materials, wallpapers, furnishings, clothing and toys, as well as ingredients in cosmetics and perfumes.

Source: AG Oomen, PJCM Janssen, A Dusseldorp, CW Noorlander. 2008. Exposure to chemicals via house dust. RIVM report 609021064.

Phthalate esters: Health effects

DEHP (diethylhexyl phthalate), is a known reproductive toxin, interfering with testes development in mammals. Indeed, its toxicity to the developing male reproductive system has been recognised for more than 50 years (Park et al. 2002). Observed toxicity is due mainly to the compound MEHP, formed in the body as a metabolite of DEHP, and appears to impact on many aspects of development and liver function, including hormone metabolism and immune function (Dalgaard et al. 2001, Wong and Gill 2002).

Organochlorine

Source: MH Ward et al. 2009. Residential Exposure to Polychlorinated Biphenyls and Organochlorine Pesticides and Risk of Childhood Leukemia. Environmental Health Perspectives, 117 (6).

PAHs
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a group of chemicals composed of two or more fused aromatic rings made up of carbon and hydrogen. PAHs are formed by the incomplete combustion of coal, oil, petrol, wood, tobacco, charbroiled meats, garbage, or other organic materials. PAHs are present in tobacco smoke, smoke from home heating (burning wood or oil), char-grilled food and creosote treated wood products. PAHs are also present in the soil where coal, wood, petrol or other products have been burned. Most of the PAHs are considered genotoxic carcinogens. A few are used in medicines, and to make dyes, plastics, and pesticides.
Naphthalene is used in making dyes, explosives, plastics, lubricants, and moth repellent. Anthracene is used in dyes, insecticides and wood preservatives.

Source: AG Oomen, PJCM Janssen, A Dusseldorp, CW Noorlander. 2008. Exposure to chemicals via house dust. RIVM report 609021064.

PAHs: Health effects

The carcinogenicity of certain PAHs is well established in laboratory animals. Researchers have reported increased incidences of skin, lung, bladder, liver, and stomach cancers, as well as injection-site sarcomas, in animals. Animal studies show that certain PAHs also can affect the hematopoietic and immune systems and can produce reproductive, neurologic, and developmental effects.

PAHs: Health effects

Endotoxins in the Home

Source: PS Thorne, RD Cohn, D Mav, SJ Arbes & DC Zeldin. 2009. Predictors of Endotoxin Levels in US Housing. Environmental Health Perspectives, 117 (5).

Control Measures for Exposure to Pollutants in House Dust : Removing Dust Safely and Effectively
Vacuum frequently and use a vacuum fitted with a HEPA (high efficiency particulate air) filter. Wet mop uncarpeted floors frequently to prevent dust from accumulating (dry mopping can kick up dust that simply resettles). Wipe furniture with a wet or microfiber cloth. Microfiber cloths work well because their smaller fibers cling to the particles. Caulk and seal cracks and crevices to prevent dust from accumulating in hard-to-reach places. Equip your forced-air heating or cooling system with high-quality filters and change them frequently to keep them working well. Keep electronic equipment dust-free by damp dusting it frequently. Pay special attention to places where little kids crawl, sit and play.

Control Measures for Exposure to Pollutants in House Dust : Removing Dust Safely and Effectively
Feather dusters have no value because they simply spread dust around. Check the vacuum cleaners: Is the bag full? Is the belt worn or broken? Is the brush worn? Is there a leak through the nozzle? Does it have an agitator?

Control Measures for Exposure to Pollutants in House Dust : Creating Less Toxic Dust
Leave your shoes at the door and use a natural doormat. Inspect foam products made between 1970 and 2005 -they're likely to contain PBDEs. Choose home electronics without PBDEs. Stick to products made with natural fibers that are naturally fire resistant and may contain fewer chemicals -- like wood furniture, cotton, down and wool. Clean up quickly and thoroughly when you finish a home improvement project, since these can involve dust (from sanding or drilling) and toxic products (like lead, PCBs and fire retardants).
Source: http://www.ewg.org/healthyhometips/toxicchemicalsinhousedust