Chap 18

Electronics Fundamentals 8
th
edition
Floyd/Buchla
2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
chapter 18
electronics fundamentals
circuits, devices, and applications
THOMAS L. FLOYD
DAVID M. BUCHLA
th
edition
Floyd/Buchla
Chapter 18
The ideal op-amp
The ideal op-amp is one with optimum characteristics,
which cannot be attained in the real world. Nevertheless,
actual op-amp circuits can often approach this ideal.
The ideal op amp has infinite voltage gain, infinite input resistance
(open), and zero output resistance.
V
in
R
in
=
A
v
V
in

V
out

R
out
= 0
+

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Floyd/Buchla
Chapter 18
The practical op-amp
Practical op-amps have limitations including power and
voltage limits. A practical op-amp has high voltage gain,
high input resistance, and low output resistance.
V
in

R
in

A
v
V
in

V
out

R
out

There are two inputs, labeled inverting and non inverting because of
the phase relation of the input and output signals.
+

inverting input
non inverting input
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Chapter 18
The differential amplifier
Most op-amps have a differential amplifier (diff-amp) as
the input stage. The differential amplifier has important
advantages over other amplifiers; for example it can reject
common-mode noise.
The input is in
single-ended mode.
R
C1
R
C2

R
E

+V
CC

V
EE

Q
1
Q
2

At the emitters, the
signal is of the input.
The signal at the collector of
Q
1
is inverted.
The signal at the collector
of Q
2
is not inverted.
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Chapter 18
Differential and common-mode signals
Signals can be applied to either or both inputs. If two input
signals are out of phase, they are in differential-mode. If the
signals are in phase, they are in common-mode.
R
C1
R
C2

R
E

+V
CC

V
EE

Q
1
Q
2

When the inputs are
out of phase, the
outputs are amplified
and larger than with
one input.
Inputs out of phase Inputs in phase
When the inputs are in
phase, the outputs tend
to cancel and are near
zero.
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Chapter 18
Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)
Many times, noise sources will induce an unwanted voltage
in a signal line. When the noise is induced in common-
mode, the differential amplifier tends to cancel it. (The diff-
amp cannot reject any signal that is in differential mode.)
The ability to reject common-mode signals is measured with a
parameter called the common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR), which
is defined as

( )
CMRR
v d
cm
A
A
=
CMRR can be expressed in decibels as
( )
CMRR 20log
v d
cm
A
A
| |
=
|
\ .
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Chapter 18
From the defining equation for CMRR:

( )
500
CMRR
0.1
v d
cm
A
A
= = =
Expressed in decibels, it is
( )
( )
CMRR 20log 20log 5000
v d
cm
A
A
| |
= = =
|
\ .
A certain diff-amp has a differential voltage
gain of 500 and a common-mode gain of
0.1. What is the CMRR?
5000
74 dB
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Chapter 18
The differential signal is amplified by 100. Therefore,
the signal output is
V
out
= A
v(d)
x V
in
= 100 x 50 mV =
( )
4.5
100 100 100
0.0032
CMRR 90 dB 10 31, 600
v d
cm
A
A = = = = =
A certain diff-amp has A
d
= 100 and a CMRR
of 90 dB. Describe the output if the input is a
50 mV differential signal and a common mode
noise of 1.0 V is present.
The common-mode gain can be found by
The noise is amplified by 0.0032. Therefore,
V
noise
= A
cm
x V
in
= 0.0032 x 1.0 V = 3.2 mV
5.0 V
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Floyd/Buchla
Chapter 18
Op-amp parameters
Some important op-amp parameters are:
Input bias
current:

Differential input
resistance:
Common-mode
input resistance:
Input offset
current:
Average of input currents required to bias
the first stage of the amplifier:
Total resistance between the inverting and
non-inverting inputs
Total resistance between each input and
ground.
Absolute difference between the two bias
currents:
1 2
BIAS
2
I I
I
+
=
OS 1 2
I I I =
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Chapter 18
Op-amp parameters
Output
resistance:
Common-mode
input voltage
range:
Common-mode
rejection ratio

Slew rate:
The resistance when viewed from the output
terminal.
Range of input voltages, which, when applied
to both inputs, will not cause clipping or other
distortion.
Ratio of the differential gain to the common-
mode gain. The differential gain for the op-amp
by itself is the same as its open loop gain.
( )
CMRR
v d
ol
cm cm
A
A
A A
= =
The maximum rate of change of the output in
response to a step input voltage.
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Chapter 18
Op-amp parameters
The output goes from 10 V to +10 V in 25 s.
What is the slew rate for
the output signal shown in
response to a step input?
V
out
(V)
12
10
10
12
0
25 s
20 V
Slew rate =
25 s
out
V
t
A
= =
A
0.8 V/s
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Floyd/Buchla
Chapter 18
Negative feedback
In 1921, Harold S. Black was working on the problem of
linearizing and stabilizing amplifiers. While traveling to work on
the ferry, he suddenly realized that if he returned some of the
output back to the input in opposite phase, he had a means of
canceling distortion. One of the most important ideas in electronics
was sketched out on his newspaper that morning.
+
V
out
V
in
V
f
Feedback
network
The op-amp has a differential
amplifier as the input stage. When a
feedback network returns a fraction
of the output to the inverting input,
only the difference signal (V
in
V
f
)
is amplified.
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edition
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Chapter 18
Op amp circuits with negative feedback
Negative feedback is used in almost all linear op-amp
circuits because it stabilizes the gain and reduces
distortion. It can also increase the input resistance.

+
Feedback
network
V
f
V
in
R
f
R
i
V
out
A basic configuration is a noninverting amplifier. The difference
between V
in
and V
f
is very small due to feedback. Therefore, .
in f
V V ~
(NI)
1
f
cl
i
R
A
R
= +
The closed-loop gain for the
noninverting amplifier can be
derived from this idea; it is
controlled by the feedback
resistors:
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Chapter 18
Op amp circuits with negative feedback

+
V
in
R
f
R
i
V
out
The inverting amplifier is a basic configuration in which the
noninverting input is grounded (sometimes through a resistor to
balance the bias inputs). Again, the difference between V
in
and V
f
is
very small due to feedback; this implies that the inverting input is
nearly at ground. This is referred to as a virtual ground. The virtual
ground looks like ground to voltage, but not to current!
(I)
f
cl
i
R
A
R
=
The closed-loop gain for the
inverting amplifier can be
derived from this idea; again it
is controlled by the feedback
resistors:
Virtual ground
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Floyd/Buchla
Chapter 18
Input resistance for the noninverting amplifier
The input resistance of an op-amp without feedback is
R
in
. For the 741C, the manufacturers specified value of
R
in
is 2 MO. Negative feedback increases this to
R
in(NI)
= (1 + A
ol
B)R
in
. This is so large that for all
practical circuits it can be considered to be infinite.
Keep in mind that, although
R
in(NI)
is extremely large, the op-
amp is a dc amplifier and still
requires a dc bias path for the
input.

+
V
in
R
f
R
i
V
out
th
edition
Floyd/Buchla
Chapter 18
Output resistance for the noninverting amplifier
The output resistance of an op-amp without feedback
is R
out
. Negative feedback decreases this by a factor
of (1 + A
ol
B). This is so small that for all practical
circuits it can be considered to be zero.

+
V
in
R
f
R
i
V
out
(NI)
1
out
out
ol
R
R
A B
=
+
The low output resistance
implies that the output voltage
is independent of the load
resistance (as long as the
current limit is not exceeded).
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Floyd/Buchla
Chapter 18
( ) ( )( ) ( )
in(NI)
1 1+ 100,000 0.040 2 M =
ol in
R A B R = + = O
The gain is
(I)
36 k
1 1
1.5 k
f
cl
i
R
A
R
O
= + = + =
O
25
The input resistance is
8 GO
The feedback fraction is
1
0.040
25
B = =

+
V
in
R
f
R
i
V
out
36 kO
1.5 kO
Solution continued on next slide
What are the input and output resistances and the gain of
the noninverting amplifier? Assume the op amp has
A
ol
= 100,000, R
in
= 2 MO, and R
out
= 75 O.
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Floyd/Buchla
Chapter 18
The last result illustrates why it is rarely
necessary to calculate an exact value for
the input resistance of a noninverting
amplifier. For practical circuits, you can
assume it is ideal.

+
V
in
R
f
R
i
V
out
36 kO
1.5 kO
(continued)
The output resistance is
( )( )
(NI)
75
=
1 1+ 100,000 0.040
out
out
ol
R
R
A B
O
= =
+
0.019 O
This extremely small resistance is close to ideal. As in the case
of the input resistance, it is rarely necessary to calculate an
exact value for the noninverting amplifier.
th
edition
Floyd/Buchla
Chapter 18
Input resistance for the inverting amplifier
Recall that negative feedback forces the inverting input
to be near ac ground for the inverting amplifier. For this
reason, the input resistance of the inverting amplifier is
equal to just the input resistor, R
i
. That is, R
in(I)
= R
i
.
The low input resistance is
usually a disadvantage of this
circuit. However, because the
R
in(I)
is equal to R
i
, it can easily
be set by the user for those cases
where a specific value is needed.

+
V
in
R
f
R
i
V
out
th
edition
Floyd/Buchla
Chapter 18
Output resistance for the inverting amplifier
The equation for the output resistance of the inverting
amplifier is the essentially the same as the
noninverting amplifier:

+
V
in
R
f
R
i
V
out
(I)
1
out
out
ol
R
R
A B
=
+
Although R
out(I)
is very small,
this does not imply that an op-
amp can drive any load. The
maximum current that the op-
amp can supply is limited; for
the 741C, it is typically 20 mA.
th
edition
Floyd/Buchla
Chapter 18

+
V
in
R
f
R
i
V
out
The gain is
(I)
36 k
1.5 k
f
cl
i
R
A
R
O
= = =
O
36 kO
1.5 kO
24
The input resistance = R
i
= 1.5 kO
The output resistance is nearly identical to the noninverting
case, where it was shown to be negligible.
What is the input resistance and the gain
of the inverting amplifier?
th
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Floyd/Buchla
Chapter 18
Voltage-follower
The voltage-follower is a special case of the noninverting
amplifier in which A
cl
= 1. The input resistance is
increased by negative feedback and the output resistance
is decreased by negative feedback. This makes it an ideal
circuit for interfacing a high-resistance source with a low
resistance load.

+
V
in
V
out
th
edition
Floyd/Buchla
Chapter 18
Operational
amplifier

Differential
amplifier

Common-mode
rejection ratio
(CMRR)

Selected Key Terms
An amplifier that produces an output
proportional to the difference of two inputs.
A measure of a diff-amp's or op-amp's ability
to reject signals that appear the same on both
inputs; the ratio of differential voltage gain
or open-loop gain (for op-amps) to common-
mode gain.
A special type of amplifier exhibiting very
high open-loop gain, very high input
resistance, very low output resistance, and
good rejection of common-mode signals.
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edition
Floyd/Buchla
Chapter 18
Open-loop
voltage gain

Closed-loop
voltage gain

Noninverting
amplifier

Inverting
amplifier
Selected Key Terms
An op-amp closed-loop configuration in
which the input signal is applied to the
noninverting input.
The overall voltage gain of an op-amp with
negative feedback.
An op-amp closed-loop configuration in
which the input signal is applied to the
inverting input.
The internal voltage gain of an op-amp
without feedback.
th
edition
Floyd/Buchla
Chapter 18
Quiz
1. When two identical in-phase signals are applied to the
inputs of a differential amplifier, they are said to be
a. feedback signals.
b. noninverting signals.
c. differential-mode signals.
d. common-mode signals.
th
edition
Floyd/Buchla
Chapter 18
Quiz
2. Assume a differential amplifier has an input signal
applied to the base of Q
1
as shown. An inverted replica
of this signal will appear at the
a. emitter terminals.
b. collector of Q
1

c. collector of Q
2
d. all of the above.

R
C1
R
C2

R
E

V
EE

Q
1
Q
2

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Floyd/Buchla
Chapter 18
Quiz
3. A differential amplifier will tend to reject
a. noise that is in differential-mode.
b. noise that is in common-mode.
c. only high frequency noise.
d. all noise.
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Chapter 18
Quiz
4. The average of two input currents required to bias the
first stage of an op-amp is called the
a. input offset current.
b. open-loop input current.
c. feedback current.
d. input bias current.
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edition
Floyd/Buchla
Chapter 18
Quiz
5. The slew rate illustrated is
a. 0.5 V/s
b. 1.0 V/s
c. 2.0 V/s
d. 2.4 V/s
V
out
(V)
12
10
10
12
0
10 s
th
edition
Floyd/Buchla
Chapter 18
Quiz
6. For the circuit shown, V
f
is approximately equal to
a. V
in
b. V
out
c. ground.
d. none of the above.

+
Feedback
network
V
f
V
in
R
f
R
i
V
out
th
edition
Floyd/Buchla
Chapter 18
Quiz
7. For the inverting amplifier shown, the input resistance is
closest to
a. zero
b. 10 kO
c. 2 MO
d. 8 GO

+
V
in
R
f
R
i
V
out
150 kO
10 kO
th
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Floyd/Buchla
Chapter 18
Quiz
8. For the inverting amplifier shown, the output resistance
is closest to
a. zero
b. 10 kO
c. 150 kO
d. 8 GO

+
V
in
R
f
R
i
V
out
150 kO
10 kO
th
edition
Floyd/Buchla
Chapter 18
Quiz
9. The gain of the inverting amplifier shown is
a. 1
b. 10
c. 15
d. 16

+
V
in
R
f
R
i
V
out
150 kO
10 kO
th
edition
Floyd/Buchla
Chapter 18
Quiz
10. A voltage follower has
a. current gain.
b. voltage gain.
c. both of the above.
d. none of the above.

th
edition
Floyd/Buchla
Chapter 18
Quiz
Answers:
1. d
2. b
3. b
4. d
5. c
6. a
7. b
8. a
9. c
10. a

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