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ABOUT C++:Paradigm(s) Multi -paradigm:procedural, object-oriented, generic

Appeared in
Designed by Developer

1983
Bjarne Stroustrup Bjarne Stroustrup Bell Labs ISO/IEC 14882:2011 (2011) Static, unsafe, nominative C++ Builder, clang, Comeau C/C++, GCC, Intel C++ Compiler, Microsoft Visual C++, sun studio

ISO/IEC JTC1/SC22/WG21 Stable release Typing discipline

Major implementations Dialects ISO/IEC C++ 1998 ISO/IEC C++ 2003

ISO/IEC C++ 2011

Influenced by Influenced OS C, Simula, Ada 83, ALGOL 68, CLU, ML[1] Perl, LPC, Lua, Pike, Ada 95, Java, PHP, D, C99, C#,[2] Falcon

Cross- platform (multi-platform)

Usual filename extensions -.h .hh .hpp .hxx .h++ .cc .cpp .cxx .c++

C++:
C++ (pronounced "cee plus plus") is a statically typed, free-form, multi-paradigm, compiled, general-purpose programming language. It is regarded as an intermediate-level language, as it comprises a combination of both high-level and low-level language features.It was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup starting in 1979 at Bell Labs as an enhancement to the C language. Originally named C with Classes, the language was renamed C++ in 1983, as a pun involving the increment operator. C++ is one of the most popular programming languages with application domains including systems software, application software, device drivers, embedded software, high-performance server and client applications, and entertainment software such

as video games. Several groups provide both free and proprietary C++ compiler software, including the GNU Project,
Microsoft, Intel and Embarcadero Technologies. C++ has greatly influenced many other popular programming languages, most notably C# and Java. C++ is also used for hardware design, where the design is initially described in C++, then analyzed, architecturally constrained, and scheduled to create a register-transfer level hardware description language via high-level synthesis. The language began as enhancements to C, first adding classes, then virtual functions, operator overloading, multiple inheritance, templates, and exception handling among other features. After years of development, the C++ programming language standard was ratified in 1998 as ISO/IEC 14882:1998. The standard was amended by the 2003 technical corrigendum, ISO/IEC 14882:2003. The current standard extending C++ with new features was ratified and published by ISO

in September 2011 as ISO/IEC 14882:2011 (informally known as C++11).

Bjarne Stroustrup began work on "C with Classes" in 1979.The idea of creating a new language originated from Stroustrup's experience in programming for his Ph.D. thesis. Stroustrup found that Simula had features that were very helpful for large software development, but the language was too slow for practical use, while BCPL was fast but too low-level to be suitable for large software development. When Stroustrup started working in AT&T Bell Labs, he had the problem of analyzing the UNIX kernel with respect to distributed computing. Remembering his Ph.D. experience, Stroustrup set out to enhance the C language with Simula-like features. C was chosen because it was

general-purpose, fast, portable and widely used. Besides C and Simula, some other languages that inspired him
were ALGOL 68, Ada, CLU and ML. At first, the class, derived class, strong type checking, inlining, and default argument features were added to C via Stroustrup's C++ to C compiler, Cfront. The first commercial implementation of C++ was released on 14 October 1985.

C++ is sometimes called a hybrid language. It is possible to write object oriented or procedural code in the same program in C++. This has caused some concern that some C++ programmers are still writing procedural code, but are under the impression that it is object oriented, simply because they are using C++. C++ continues to be used and is one of the preferred programming languages to develop professional applications.

etymology:
According to Stroustrup: "the name signifies the evolutionary nature of the changes from C". During C++'s development period, the language had been referred to as "new C", then "C with Classes". The final name is credited to Rick Mascitti (mid-1983) and was first used in December 1983. When Mascitti was questioned informally in 1992 about the naming, he indicated that it was given in a tongue-in-cheek spirit. It stems from C's "++" operator (which increments the value of a variable) and a common naming convention of using "+" to indicate an enhanced computer program. There is no language called "C plus". ABCL/c+ was the name of an earlier, unrelated programming language. Standardization Year C++ Standard Informal name

2011
2007 2003 1998

ISO/IEC 14882:2011[16]

C++11

ISO/IEC TR 19768:2007[17] C++TR1 ISO/IEC 14882:2003[18] ISO/IEC 14882:1998[19] C++03 C++98

In 1998, the C++ standards committee (the ISO/IEC JTC1/SC22/WG21 working group) standardized C++ and published the international standard ISO/IEC 14882:1998 (informally known as C++98).[citation needed] For some years after the official release of the standard, the committee processed defect reports, and published a corrected version of the C++ standard, ISO/IEC 14882:2003, in 2003. In 2005, a technical report, called the "Library Technical Report 1" (often known as TR1 for short), was released. While not an official part of the standard, it specified a number of extensions to the standard library, which were expected to be included in the next version of C++. Support for TR1 is growing in almost all currently maintained C++ compilers. The latest major revision of the C++ standard, C++11, (formerly known as C++0x) was approved by ISO/IEC on 12 August 2011.[20] It has been published as 14882:2011.

Philosophy:
In The Design and Evolution of C++ (1994), Bjarne Stroustrup describes some rules that he used for the design of C++:[page needed] C++ is designed to be a statically typed, general-purpose language that is as efficient and portable as C C++ is designed to directly and comprehensively support multiple programming styles (procedural programming, data abstraction, object-oriented programming, and generic programming) C++ is designed to give the programmer choice, even if this makes it possible for the programmer to choose incorrectly C++ is designed to be as compatible with C as possible, therefore providing a smooth transition from C C++ avoids features that are platform specific or not general purpose C++ does not incur overhead for features that are not used (the "zero-overhead principle") C++ is designed to function without a sophisticated programming environment Inside the C++ Object Model (Lippman, 1996) describes how compilers may convert C++ program statements into an in-memory layout. Compiler authors are, however, free to implement the standard in their own manner.

Standard library:
The 1998 ANSI/ISO C++ standard consists of two parts: the core language and the C++ Standard Library; the latter includes most of the Standard Template Library (STL) and a slightly modified version of the C standard library. The C++ standard library incorporates the C standard library with some small modifications to make it optimized with the C++ language. Another large part of the C++ library is based on the STL. This provides such useful tools as containers (for example vectors and lists), iterators to provide these containers with array-like access and algorithms to perform operations such as searching and sorting. Furthermore (multi)maps (associative arrays) and (multi)sets are provided,

all of which export compatible interfaces. Therefore it is possible, using templates, to write generic
algorithms that work with any container or on any sequence defined by iterators. As in C, the features of the library are accessed by using the #include directive to include a standard header. C++ provides 72 standard headers, of which 17 are deprecated. Most C++ compilers provide an implementation of the C++ standard library, including the STL. Compiler-independent implementations of the STL, such as STLPort,[22] also exist. Other projects also produce various custom implementations of the C++ standard library and the STL with various design goals.

Language features:
C++ inherits most of C's syntax. The following is Bjarne Stroustrup's version of the Hello world program that uses the C++ Standard Library stream facility to write a message to standard output: #include <iostream> int main() { std::cout << "Hello, world!\n"; } Within functions that define a non-void return type, failure to return a value before control reaches the end of the function results in undefined behaviour (compilers typically provide the means to issue a diagnostic in such a case). The sole exception to this rule is the main function, which implicitly returns a value of zero.

Operators and operator overloading:

C++ provides more than 35 operators, covering basic arithmetic, bit manipulation, indirection, comparisons, logical operations and others. Almost all operators can be overloaded for user-defined types, with a few notable exceptions such as member access (. and .*) as well as the conditional operator. The rich set of overloadable operators is central to using C++ as a domain-specific language. The overloadable operators are also an essential part of many advanced C++ programming techniques, such as smart pointers. Overloading an operator does not change the precedence of calculations involving the operator, nor does it change the number of operands that the operator uses (any operand may however be ignored by the operator, though it will be evaluated prior to execution). Overloaded "&&" and "||" operators lose their short-circuit evaluation property.

Operators that cannot be overloaded Operator Scope resolution operator Conditional operator Member selection operator "sizeof" operator :: ?: .* sizeof Symbol

object:
C++ introduces object-oriented programming (OOP) features to C. It offers classes, which provide the four features commonly present in OOP (and some non-OOP) languages: abstraction, encapsulation, inheritance, and polymorphism. Objects are instances of classes created at runtime. One distinguishing feature of C++ classes compared to classes in other programming languages is support for deterministic destructors, which in turn provide support for the Resource Allocation is Initialization concept.

Encapsulation:
Encapsulation is the hiding of information in order to ensure that data structures and operators are used as intended and to make the usage model more obvious to the developer. C++ provides the ability to define classes and functions as its primary encapsulation mechanisms. Within a class, members can be declared as either public, protected, or private in order to explicitly enforce encapsulation.The OO principle is that all of the functions (and only the functions) that access the internal representation of a type should be encapsulated within the type definition. Therefore, C++ supports not just OO programming, but other weaker decomposition paradigms, like modular programming.

Inheritance:
Inheritance allows one data type to acquire properties of other data types. Inheritance from a base class may be declared as public, protected, or private. This access specifier determines whether

unrelated and derived classes can access the inherited public and protected members of the base
class. Only public inheritance corresponds to what is usually meant by "inheritance". If the access specifier is omitted, a "class" inherits privately, while a "struct" inherits publicly. Base classes may be declared as virtual; this is called virtual inheritance. Virtual inheritance ensures that only one instance of a base class exists in the inheritance graph, avoiding some of the ambiguity problems of multiple inheritance.

Polymorphism:
Polymorphism enables one common interface for many implementations, and for objects to act differently under different circumstances. C++ supports several kinds of static (compile-time) and dynamic (run-time) polymorphisms. Compile-time polymorphism does not allow for certain run-time decisions, while run-time polymorphism typically incurs a performance penalty. Static polymorphism Function overloading allows programs to declare multiple functions having the same name (but with different arguments). The functions are distinguished by the number or types of their formal parameters. Thus, the same function name can refer to different functions depending on the context in which it is used. The type returned by the function is not used to distinguish overloaded functions and would result in a compile-time error message. Dynamic polymorphism C++ also provides a dynamic_cast operator, which allows the program to safely attempt conversion of an object into an object of a more specific object type (as opposed to conversion to a more general type, which is always allowed). This feature relies on run-time type information (RTTI).

Virtual member functions:

Ordinarily, when a function in a derived class overrides a function in a base class, the function to call is determined by the type of the object. A given function is overridden when there exists no difference in the number or type of parameters between two or more definitions of that function. Hence, at compile time, it may not be possible to determine the type of the object and therefore the correct function to call, given only a base class pointer; the decision is therefore put off until runtime. This is called dynamic dispatch. Virtual member functions or methods allow the most specific implementation of the function to be called, according to the actual run-time type of the object. A member function can also be made "pure virtual" by appending it with = 0 after the closing parenthesis and before the semicolon. A class containing a pure virtual function is called an abstract data type. Objects cannot be created from abstract data types; they can only be derived from. Any derived class inherits the virtual function as pure and must provide a non-pure definition of it (and all other pure virtual functions) before objects of the derived class can be created. A program that attempts to create an object of a class with a pure virtual member function or inherited pure virtual member function is ill-formed.

compatibility:
Producing a reasonably standards-compliant C++ compiler has proven to be a difficult task for compiler vendors in general. In order to give compiler vendors greater freedom, the C++ standards committee decided not to dictate the implementation of name mangling,

exception handling, and other

implementation-specific features. The downside of this decision is that object code produced by different compilers is expected to be incompatible. There were, however, attempts to standardize compilers for particular machines or operating systems(for example C++ ABI), though they seem to be largely abandoned now.

criticism:
Due to its large feature set and oft-perceived "strict" syntax, the language is sometimes criticized as being overly complicated and thus difficult to fully master.Because it includes most of the C programming language as a subset, C++ also inherits many of the criticisms leveled at C. Other criticisms stem from missing features of C++'s standard library, such as the lack of "native" multithreading facilitiesa feature present in some other languages, including Ada, C#, and Java (see Lock). In the specific case of threading, the most recent revision to the standard, C++11, corrects this omission.

Another point of criticism is the feature of multiple inheritance, as such ontologies are difficult to maintain.[citation needed] Bjarne Stroustrup, comp.lang.c++